CAL (programming language)
CAL, short for Conversational Algebraic Language, was a programming language and system designed and developed by Butler Lampson at Berkeley in 1967 for the SDS 940 mainframe computer. CAL is a version of the seminal JOSS language with a number of cleanups and new features to take advantage of the SDS platform.
The Berkeley SDS was used for the development of the Tymshare commercial time-sharing platform and an improved version of CAL was offered as a programming environment to its customers in 1969. Although CAL saw "almost no use", it had a lasting impact by influencing the design of Tymshare SUPER BASIC which copied a number of its features. Some of those features, in turn, appeared in BASIC-PLUS on the PDP-11, which is the direct ancestor of Microsoft BASIC.
Description
Basic concepts
JOSS had been designed to be used by non-programmers in the US Air Force and within Rand Corporation, and to aid with that, Rand designed custom computer terminals that were easier to set up and use. These terminals, based on the IBM Selectric typewriter, also included a custom character set that implemented common mathematical symbols like and.To a large degree, CAL was a version of JOSS that replaced these sorts of customizations with more common solutions like and so they could run on common terminals. The other noticeable differences were that CAL was all upper-case, as opposed to sentence casing in JOSS, and it did not require a period at the end of the line. The commands were otherwise almost identical and the overall structure and syntax the same.
As with JOSS, CAL had an interactive user interface that allowed the user to type in statements in "direct mode" or programs to be run in "indirect mode". In BASIC, the former is more commonly referred to as "immediate mode". Both CAL and JOSS used a two-part line number, known as the part and step, separated by a period, for instance, for part 1 step 100. Parts were generally used to group related statements into subroutines. In CAL, the part number could be between 0 and 999999, and the step from 0 to 99999.
There were two main versions of CAL, released in 1967 and 1969. The following description will be based primarily on the former version unless otherwise noted.
Jumps and subroutines
As in JOSS, CAL supported the command to branch to a provided part or step, as in or, and for subroutine calls, as in to perform the entire part, or to run that single step and then return. The later syntax was useful when there were many small subroutines as they could be implemented on a single line without an associated or similar concept.Conditional branching and assignment
One of the more notable syntactic features of JOSS was the concept of "statement modifiers" which controlled the operation of other statements. JOSS used this for conditional branching.In most languages, one would write something to the effect of "if this expression is true, then do this...". In JOSS, this order was reversed, and such statements took the form "do this if this is true", for instance,. CAL added some syntactic sugar to this basic concept by adding the new modifier, which, depending on context, led to more obvious code;.
CAL further modified the basic if statement by adding and. In JOSS, if one wanted to assign the value 5 to a variable A if the value of B was larger than 10, and 0 otherwise, the code would be:
Set A=5 if B>10.
Set A=0 if B<=10.
This sort of either/or assignment is very common and takes up two lines. CAL improved on JOSS by implementing an :
A=IF B>10 THEN 5 ELSE 0
A similar modification was the statement, used to set variables as part of an if or for. It was similar in concept to the if/then/else structure, but could have any number of items. For instance,.
Loops
Looping in JOSS was also controlled by a modifier, the. This used somewhat obscure syntax; runs a loop from 1 to 10 stepping by 2, so it would print 1,3,5,7,9. One could also supply explicit values,, or mix the two,CAL improved on JOSS' syntax by introducing the and keywords, so the equivalent code in CAL would be. In JOSS, the parenthesis around the step value was the separator for the two limits, so it could not be made optional. By separating out the limits became explicit and the was made optional as assumed to be 1;. As with JOSS, explicit values and ranges could be used;. CAL further modified the for loop by adding conditional exits, using and. For instance, or.
User-defined functions
JOSS allowed the user to define functions using the statement. The syntax allowed local variables to be named in the function signature; Programs could then call these functions as if they were built-in,CAL changed to, which is much more obvious, and made a more minor change the parameters were passed in using braces instead of parenthesis, so the equivalent definition would be and called in the same way,.
A more important change to CAL's functions was the ability to call subroutines from the definitions using, as in. This left the issue of assigning the resulting calculated value back to the function, which was addressed with the introduction of the statement at the end of the part, where Z is the final value to be returned.
Other changes
CAL included the mathematical functions of JOSS but added a number of new ones including,,, and. It added a new operator as well,, which returned the remainder of a division of its two operands.Direct mode
CAL added a small number of direct mode commands and associated statements., when encountered in a program, printed a message "PAUSED AT STEP 1.1" and then returned to direct mode. This was similar to the command in BASIC. This allowed the user to type in values and the continue execution with. While in direct mode, the user could by a single line at a time to trace the execution of the program.
CAL changed JOSS' user-defined function to the somewhat more obvious, while also changing the parameter list to use instead of. In JOSS these were normally found in direct mode, whereas in CAL they were only allowed in direct mode. For instance, one could. This example also demonstrates JOSS' ability to use a loop range as the input to a function. In contrast to JOSS, CAL allowed multi-step functions by adding additional statements separated by a colon, for instance,. Note that this example has no body, it simply calls c