Common Security and Defence Policy

The Common Security and Defence Policy is the European Union's course of action in the fields of defence and crisis management, and a main component of the EU's Common Foreign and Security Policy.
The CSDP involves military or civilian missions being deployed to preserve peace, prevent conflict and strengthen international security in accordance with the principles of the United Nations Charter. Military missions are carried out by EU forces established with secondments from the member states' armed forces. The CSDP also entails collective self-defence amongst member states as well as a Permanent Structured Cooperation in which 25 of the 27 national armed forces pursue structural integration. The CSDP structure — headed by the Union's High Representative, Josep Borrell, and sometimes referred to as the European Defence Union in relation to its prospective development as the EU's defence arm — comprises:

the European Commission's Defence Industry Directorate-General
the External Action Service's Crisis Management and Planning Directorate and permanent Operation Headquarters for command and control at the military/civilian strategic level, i.e. the MPCC and CPCC.
a number of Foreign Affairs Council preparatory bodies — such as the Military Committee
four agencies, including the Defence Agency

The EU command & control structures are much smaller than the North Atlantic Treaty Organization's Command Structure, which has been established for territorial defence. It has been agreed that NATO's Allied Command Operations may be used for the conduct of the EU's missions. The MPCC, established in 2017 and to be strengthened in 2020, is the EU's first permanent military OHQ. In parallel, the newly established European Defence Fund marks the first time the EU budget is used to finance multinational defence projects.
Decisions relating to the CSDP are proposed by the HR/VP, adopted by the FAC, generally requiring unanimity, and then implemented by the HR/VP.

History

The post-war period saw several short-lived or ill-fated initiatives for European defence integration intended to protect against potential Soviet or German aggression: The Western Union and the proposed European Defence Community were respectively cannibalised by the North Atlantic Treaty Organisation and rejected by the French Parliament. The largely dormant Western European Union succeeded the WU's remainder in 1955.
In 1970 the European Political Cooperation brought about the European Communities' initial foreign policy coordination. Opposition to the addition of security and defence matters to the EPC led to the reactivation of the WEU in 1984 by its member states, which were also EC member states.
European defence integration gained momentum soon after the end of the Cold War, partly as a result of the EC's failure to prevent the Yugoslav Wars. In 1992, the WEU was given new tasks, and the following year the Treaty of Maastricht founded the EU and replaced the EPC with the Common Foreign and Security Policy pillar. In 1996 NATO agreed to let the WEU develop a so-called European Security and Defence Identity. The 1998 St. Malo declaration signalled that the traditionally hesitant United Kingdom was prepared to provide the EU with autonomous defence structures. This facilitated the transformation of the ESDI into the European Security and Defence Policy in 1999, when it was transferred to the EU. In 2003 the EU deployed its first CSDP missions, and adopted the European Security Strategy identifying common threats and objectives. In 2009, the Treaty of Lisbon introduced the present name, CSDP, while establishing the EEAS, the mutual defence clause and enabling a subset of member states to pursue defence integration within PESCO. In 2011 the WEU, whose tasks had been transferred to the EU, was dissolved. In 2016 a new security strategy was introduced, which along with the Russian annexation of Crimea, the British withdrawal from the EU and the election of Trump as US President have given the CSDP a new impetus.

Deployments

The first deployment of European troops under the ESDP, following the 1999 declaration of intent, was in March 2003 in the former Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia. Operation Concordia used NATO assets and was considered a success and replaced by a smaller police mission, EUPOL Proxima, later that year. Since then, there have been other small police, justice and monitoring missions. As well as in the FYROM, the EU has maintained its deployment of peacekeepers in Bosnia and Herzegovina, as part of Operation Althea.
Between May and September 2003 EU troops were deployed to the Democratic Republic of the Congo during "Operation Artemis" under a mandate given by UN Security Council Resolution 1484 which aimed to prevent further atrocities and violence in the Ituri Conflict and put the DRC's peace process back on track. This laid out the "framework nation" system to be used in future deployments. The EU returned to the DRC during July–November 2006 with EUFOR RD Congo, which supported the UN mission there during the country's elections.
Geographically, EU missions outside the Balkans and the DRC have taken place in Georgia, Indonesia, Sudan, Palestine, and Ukraine–Moldova. There is also a judicial mission in Iraq. On 28 January 2008, the EU deployed its largest and most multi-national mission to Africa, EUFOR Tchad/RCA. The UN-mandated mission involves troops from 25 EU states deployed in areas of eastern Chad and the north-eastern Central African Republic in order to improve security in those regions. EUFOR Tchad/RCA reached full operation capability in mid-September 2008, and handed over security duties to the UN in mid-March 2009.
The EU launched its first maritime CSDP operation on 12 December 2008. The concept of the European Union Naval Force was created on the back of this operation, which is still successfully combatting piracy off the coast of Somalia almost a decade later. A second such intervention was launched in 2015 to tackle migration problems in the southern Mediterranean, working under the name Operation SOPHIA.
Most of the CSDP missions deployed so far are mandated to support Security Sector Reforms in host-states. One of the core principles of CSDP support to SSR is local ownership. The EU Council defines ownership as "the appropriation by the local authorities of the commonly agreed objectives and principles". Despite EU's strong rhetorical attachment to the local ownership principle, research shows that CSDP missions continue to be an externally driven, top-down and supply-driven endeavour, resulting often in the low degree of local participation.

Structure

The CSDP involves military or civilian missions being deployed to preserve peace, prevent conflict and strengthen international security in accordance with the principles of the United Nations Charter. Military missions are carried out by EU forces established with contributions from the member states' armed forces. The CSDP also entails collective self-defence amongst member states as well as a Permanent Structured Cooperation in which 25 of the 27 national armed forces pursue structural integration. The CSDP structure, headed by the Union's High Representative, Josep Borrell, comprises:

the Defence Industry Directorate-General of the European Commission
relevant sections of the External Action Service — including the Military Staff with its so-called Military Planning and Conduct Capability
a number of Foreign Affairs Council preparatory bodies — such as the Military Committee
four agencies, including the Defence Agency

While the EU has a command and control structure, it has no standing permanent military structure along the lines of the North Atlantic Treaty Organization's Allied Command Operations, although it has been agreed that ACO resources may be used for the conduct of the EU's CSDP missions. The MPCC, established in 2017 and to be strengthened in 2020, does however represent the EU's first step in developing a permanent military headquarters. In parallel, the newly established European Defence Fund marks the first time the EU budget is used to finance multinational defence projects. The CSDP structure is sometimes referred to as the European Defence Union, especially in relation to its prospective development as the EU's defence arm.
Decisions relating to the CSDP are proposed by the HR/VP, adopted by the FAC, generally requiring unanimity, and then implemented by the HR/VP.

Strategy

The European Union Global Strategy is the updated doctrine of the EU to improve the effectiveness of the CSDP, including the defence and security of the members states, the protection of civilians, cooperation between the member states' armed forces, management of immigration, crises etc. Adopted on 28 June 2016, it replaces the European Security Strategy of 2003. The EUGS is complemented by a document titled "Implementation Plan on Security and Defense".

Forces

National

The CSDP is implemented using civilian and military contributions from member states' armed forces, which also are obliged to collective self-defence based on Treaty on European Union.
Five EU states host nuclear weapons: France has its own nuclear programmes, while Belgium, Germany, Italy and the Netherlands host US nuclear weapons as part of NATO's nuclear sharing policy. Combined, the EU possesses 300 warheads, and hosts between 90 and 130 US warheads. Italy hosts 70-90 B61 nuclear bombs, while Germany, Belgium, and the Netherlands 10-20 each one. The EU has the third largest arsenal of nuclear weapons, after the United States and Russia.

Expenditure and personnel

The following table presents the military expenditures of the members of the European Union in euros. The combined military expenditure of the member states amounted to €223.4 billion in 2018. This represents 1.4% of European Union GDP. European military expenditure includes spending on joint projects such as the Eurofighter Typhoon and joint procurement of equipment. The European Union's combined active military forces in 2016 totaled 1,410,626 personnel.
In a speech in 2012, Swedish General Håkan Syrén criticised the spending levels of European Union countries, saying that in the future those countries' military capability will decrease, creating "critical shortfalls".
Guide to table:

All figure entries in the table below are provided by the European Defence Agency for the year 2017, except for Germany's personnel figure, which is for 2016. Figures from other sources are not included.
The "operations & maintenance expenditure" category may in some circumstances also include finances on-top of the nations defence budget.
The categories "troops prepared for deployed operations" and "troops prepared for deployed and sustained operation" only include land force personnel.

Member state	Expenditure	Per capita	% of GDP	Operations & maintenance expenditure	Active military personnel	Land troops prepared for deployed and sustained operations	Reserve personnel
Austria	2,647	301	0.72	574	24,190	1,100	950,000
Belgium	3,965	349	0.90	680	27,789	1,293	3,300
Bulgaria	771	109	1.53	118	30,218	1,168	3,000
Croatia	615	149	1.26	154	14,862	796	18,343
Cyprus	352	409	1.83	63	20,000	0	75,000
	1,944	184	1.01	474	23,036	672	3,236
Estonia	478	363	2.08	158	6,178	100	60,000
Finland	2,879	523	1.29	919	7,515	1,738	900,000
France	40,852	609	1.79	10,201	208,251	17,000	38,550
Germany	40,447	489	1.24		177,608		29,200
Greece	4,213	393	2.37	504	106,624	2,432
Hungary	1,197	122	0.97	492	23,846	1,000	20,000
Ireland	915	191	0.31	103	9,500	850	1,778
Italy	20,534	339	1.20	1,583	181,116		18,300
Latvia	470	243	1.75	132	5,686	75	3,000
Lithuania	724	256	1.73	145	14,350		26,000
Luxembourg	289	484	0.52	30	824	57
Malta	57	122	0.51	8	1,808	30
Netherlands	8,686	507	1.18	2,144	40,196	1,500	5,046
Poland	8,683	226	1.86	1,918	106,500	60	75,400
Portugal	2,422	235	1.25	142	32,726	1,698
Romania	3,627	185	1.93	277	69,542	2,961	50,000
Slovakia	993	183	1.17	198	13,152	846
Slovenia	422	204	0.98	72	6,342	707	1,000
Spain	10,739	231	0.92	1,891	120,812	7,410	15,150
Sweden	4,638	460	0.97	1,973	14,500	750	34,500
EU	226,152	443	1.42		1,430,072

Naval forces

The combined component strength of the naval forces of member states is some 513 commissioned warships. Of those in service, 4 are fleet carriers. The EU also has 4 amphibious assault ships and 20 amphibious support ships in service. Of the EU's 49 submarines, 10 are nuclear-powered submarines while 39 are conventional attack submarines.
Operation Atalanta is the first ever naval operation of the European Union. It is part of a larger global action by the EU in the Horn of Africa to deal with the Somali crisis. As of January 2011 twenty-three EU nations participate in the operation.
France and Italy have blue-water navies.
Guide to table:

Ceremonial vessels, research vessels, supply vessels, training vessels, and icebreakers are not included.
The table only counts warships that are commissioned and active.
Surface vessels displacing less than 200 tonnes are not included, regardless of other characteristics.
The "amphibious support ship" category includes amphibious transport docks and dock landing ships, and tank landing ships.
Frigates over 6,000 tonnes are classified as destroyers.
The "patrol vessel" category includes missile boats.
The "anti-mine ship" category includes mine countermeasures vessels, minesweepers and minehunters.
Generally, total tonnage of ships is more important than total number of ships, as it gives a better indication of capability.

Member state	Fleet carrier	Amphibious assault ship	Amphibious support ship	Destroyer	Frigate	Corvette	Patrol vessel	Anti‑mine ship	Missile sub.	Attack sub.	Total	Tonnage
Austria											0	0
Belgium					2		2	5			9	10,009
Bulgaria			1		4	3	1	10			18	15,160
Croatia							5	2			7	2,869
Cyprus							5				5	0
											0	0
Denmark				5	4		9				18	51,235
Estonia								3			3	2,000
Finland						4	4	12			20	5,429
France	1	3	2	13	11		20	18	4	6	76	319,195
Germany				3	7	5	8	15		6	44	82,790
Greece			9		13		33	4		11	70	138,565
Hungary											0	0
Ireland							8				8	11,219
Italy	2		3	4	14	5	11	10		8	57	303,411
Latvia								5			5	3,025
Lithuania							4	4			8	5,678
Luxembourg											0	0
Malta							15				15	400
			2	4	2		4	6		4	22	116,308
Poland			5		2	1	3	19		3	28	19,724
Portugal					5	7	7			2	23	34,686
Romania					3	7	6	5			21	23,090
Slovakia											0	0
Slovenia							1	1			2	435
Spain	1		2	5	6		23	6		3	46	148,607
Sweden						6		11		5	22	14,256
EU	4	4	20	29	73	32	169	136	4	48	513 ~513	1,200,000 ~1,200,000

Land forces

Combined, the member states of the European Union maintain large numbers of various land-based military vehicles and weaponry.
Guide to table:

The table is not exhaustive and primarily includes vehicles and EU-NATO member countries under the Conventional Armed Forces in Europe Treaty. Unless otherwise specified.
The CFE treaty only includes vehicles stationed within Europe, vehicles overseas on operations are not counted.
The "main battle tank" category also includes tank destroyers or any self-propelled armoured fighting vehicle, capable of heavy firepower. According to the CFE treaty.
The "armoured fighting vehicle" category includes any armoured vehicle primarily designed to transport infantry and equipped with an automatic cannon of at least 20 mm calibre. According to the CFE treaty.
The "artillery" category includes self-propelled or towed howitzers and mortars of 100 mm calibre and above. Other types of artillery are not included regardless of characteristics. According to the CFE treaty.
The "attack helicopter" category includes any rotary wing aircraft armed and equipped to engage targets or equipped to perform other military functions. According to the CFE treaty.
The "military logistics vehicle" category includes logistics trucks of 4-tonne, 8-tonne, 14-tonne or larger, purposely designed for military tasking. Not under CFE treaty.

Member state	Main battle tank	Armoured fighting vehicle	Artillery	Attack helicopter	Military logistics vehicle
Austria	54	364	73
Belgium	0	226	133	27
Bulgaria	362	681	1,035	12
Croatia	75	283	127	10
Cyprus
	123	501	182	24
Denmark	46	229	56	12
Estonia			74
Finland	180	1,080	722	25
France	450	6,256	349	283	10,746
Germany	815	1,774	401	158
Greece	1,622	2,187	1,920	29
Hungary	30	400	12	8
Ireland		107	36
Italy	1,176	3,145	1,446	107	10,921
Latvia
Lithuania		88	96
Luxembourg
Malta
Netherlands	16	634	135	21
Poland	1,675	3,110	1,580	83
Portugal	220	425	377
Romania	857	1,272	1,273	23
Slovakia	30	327	68
Slovenia	76	52	63
Spain	484	1,007	811	27
Sweden	120	978	268
EU	7,268	13,541	9,159	773

Air forces

The air forces of EU member states operate a wide range of military systems and hardware. This is primarily due to the independent requirements of each member state and also the national defence industries of some member states. However such programmes like the Eurofighter Typhoon and Eurocopter Tiger have seen many European nations design, build and operate a single weapons platform. 60% of overall combat fleet was developed and manufactured by member states, 32% are US-origin, but some of these were assembled in Europe, while remaining 8% are soviet-made aircraft. As of 2014, it is estimated that the European Union had around 2,000 serviceable combat aircraft.
The EUs air-lift capabilities are evolving with the future introduction of the Airbus A400M. The A400M is a tactical airlifter with strategic capabilities. Around 140 are initially expected to be operated by 5 member states.
Guide to tables:

The tables are sourced from figures provided by Flight International for the year 2014.
Aircraft are grouped into three main types : red for combat aircraft, green for aerial refueling aircraft, and grey for strategic and tactical transport aircraft.
The two "other" columns include additional aircraft according to their type sorted by colour. This was done because it was not feasible allocate every aircraft type its own column.
Other aircraft such as trainers, helicopters, UAVs and reconnaissance or surveillance aircraft are not included in the below tables or figures.

;Fighter and ground-attack

Member state	Typhoon	Rafale	Mirage 2000	Gripen	F-16	F/A-18	F-35	Tornado	MiG-29	Other	Total
Austria	15										15
Belgium					59						59
Bulgaria									15		15
Croatia										12 MiG-21	12
Cyprus
				14						19 L-159	33
Denmark					60						60
Estonia
Finland						62					62
France		137	152								289
Germany	117							116			233
Greece			43		154					34 F-4	231
Hungary				14							14
Ireland
Italy	95						10	75		55 AMX, 17 Harrier II	252
Latvia
Lithuania										3 L-39	3
Luxembourg
Malta
Netherlands					87		2				89
Poland					48				31	36 Su-22	115
Portugal					31						31
Romania					12					36 MiG-21	48
Slovakia									12	7 L-39	19
Slovenia										9 Pilatus PC-9	9
Spain	45					86				17 Harrier II	148
Sweden				95							95
EU	257	137	195	123	451	148	12	191	58	245	1,817

;Aerial refueling and transport

Member state	A330 MRTT	A310 MRTT	KC-135/707	C-17	C-130	C-160	C-27J	CN-235/C-295	An-26	A400M	Other	Total
Austria					5							5
Belgium					11						1 A321	12
Bulgaria							2		2		1 A319	5
Croatia								4			2 An-32B	6
Cyprus
								4	6		2 A319	12
Denmark					4							4
Estonia
Finland								2			1 F27	3
France			14		14	36		27		6	3 A310 3 A340	99
Germany		4				71				1	1 A310 2 A319	76
Greece					13		8					21
Hungary									4			4
Ireland								2			1 BNT-2 CC2/B	3
Italy					16		12				4 KC-767 3 KC-130J 3 A319	38
Latvia
Lithuania							3				1	4
Luxembourg
Malta											2 BNT-2 CC2/B 2 King Air 200	4
Netherlands					4						2 DC-10	6
Poland					5			16				20
Portugal					6			7				13
Romania					2		7		2			11
Slovakia									2			2
Slovenia											1 Let L-410 Turbolet 2 Pilatus PC-6 Porter 1 Dassault Falcon 2000	4
Spain			2		7			21			5 KC-130H 2 A310	37
Sweden					7						1 KC-130H	8
EU	0	4	16	0	83	107	30	81	16	7	41	381

Multinational

Established at Union level

The Helsinki Headline Goal Catalogue is a listing of rapid reaction forces composed of 60,000 troops managed by the European Union, but under control of the countries who deliver troops for it.
Forces introduced at Union level include:

The battle groups adhere to the CSDP, and are based on contributions from a coalition of member states. Each of the eighteen Battlegroups consists of a battalion-sized force reinforced with combat support elements. The groups rotate actively, so that two are ready for deployment at all times. The forces are under the direct control of the Council of the European Union. The Battlegroups reached full operational capacity on 1 January 2007, although, as of January 2013 they are yet to see any military action. They are based on existing ad hoc missions that the European Union has undertaken and has been described by some as a new "standing army" for Europe. The troops and equipment are drawn from the EU member states under a "lead nation". In 2004, United Nations Secretary-General Kofi Annan welcomed the plans and emphasised the value and importance of the Battlegroups in helping the UN deal with troublespots.
The Medical Command is a planned medical command centre in support of EU missions, formed as part of the Permanent Structured Cooperation. The EMC will provide the EU with a permanent medical capability to support operations abroad, including medical resources and a rapidly deployable medical task force. The EMC will also provide medical evacuation facilities, triage and resuscitation, treatment and holding of patients until they can be returned to duty, and emergency dental treatment. It will also contribute to harmonising medical standards, certification and legal framework conditions.
The Force Crisis Response Operation Core is a flagship defence project under development as part of Permanent Structured Cooperation. EURFOR CROC will contribute to the creation of a "full spectrum force package" to speed up provision of military forces and the EU's crisis management capabilities. Rather than creating a standing force, the project involves creating a concrete catalogue of military force elements that would speed up the establishment of a force when the EU decides to launch an operation. It is land-focused and aims to generate a force of 60,000 troops from the contributing states alone. While it does not establish any form of "European army", it foresees an deployable, interoperable force under a single command. Germany is the lead country for the project, but the French are heavily involved and it is tied to President Emmanuel Macron's proposal to create a standing intervention force. The French see it as an example of what PESCO is about.
Provided through Article 42.3 TEU

This section presents an incomplete list of forces and bodies established intergovernmentally amongst a subset of member states. These organisations will deploy forces based on the collective agreement of their member states. They are typically technically listed as being able to be deployed under the auspices of NATO, the United Nations, the European Union through Article 42.3 of TEU, the Organization for Security and Co-operation in Europe, or any other international entity.
However, with the exception of the Eurocorps, very few have actually been deployed for any real military operation, and none under the CSDP at any point in its history.
Land Forces:

The Eurocorps is an army corps of approximately 1,000 soldiers stationed in Strasbourg, France. Based in the French city of Strasbourg, the corps is the nucleus of the Franco-German Brigade.
The I. German/Dutch Corps is a multinational formation consisting of units from the Dutch and German armies. Due to its role as a NATO High Readiness Forces Headquarters, soldiers from other NATO member states, the United States, Denmark, Norway, Spain, Italy, the United Kingdom amongst others, are also stationed at Münster.
The Multinational Corps Northeast, a Danish-German-Polish multinational corps
The European Gendarmerie Force, an intervention force with militarised police functions which specializes in crisis management.

Aerial:

The European Air Transport Command exercises operational control of the majority of the aerial refueling capabilities and military transport fleets of its participating nations. Located at Eindhoven Airbase in the Netherlands, the command also bears a limited responsibility for exercises, aircrew training and the harmonisation of relevant national air transport regulations. The command was established in 2010 to provide a more efficient management of the participating nations' assets and resources in this field.

Naval:

The European Maritime Force is a non-standing, military force that may carry out naval, air and amphibious operations, with an activation time of 5 days after an order is received. The force was formed in 1995 to fulfill missions defined in the Petersberg Declaration, such as sea control, humanitarian missions, peacekeeping operations, crisis response operations, and peace enforcement.
Participation, relationship with NATO

Out of the 27 EU member states, 22 are also members of NATO. Another four NATO members are EU applicants—Albania, Montenegro, North Macedonia and Turkey. Two others—Iceland and Norway—have opted to remain outside of the EU, however participate in the EU's single market. The memberships of the EU and NATO are distinct, and some EU member states are traditionally neutral on defence issues. Several EU member states were formerly members of the Warsaw Pact. Denmark has an opt-out from the CSDP.
The Berlin Plus agreement is the short title of a comprehensive package of agreements made between NATO and the EU on 16 December 2002. These agreements were based on conclusions of NATO's 1999 Washington summit, sometimes referred to as the CJTF mechanism, and allowed the EU to draw on some of NATO's military assets in its own peacekeeping operations.
, asserting that the utility of the combined civilian and military components of the EU policy could be considered more effective than NATO for a limited level of conflict.

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