Cross
A cross is a geometrical figure consisting of two intersecting lines or bars, usually perpendicular to each other. The lines usually run vertically and horizontally.
A cross of oblique lines, in the shape of the Latin letter X, is also termed a saltire in heraldic terminology.
Throughout centuries the cross in its various shapes and forms was a symbol of various beliefs. In pre-Christian times it was a pagan religious symbol throughout Europe and western Asia. In ancient times, the effigy of a man hanging on a cross was set up in the fields to protect the crops. The cross was even considered a male symbol of the phallic Tree of Life; thus it often appeared in conjunction with the female-genital circle or oval, to signify the sacred marriage, as in Egyptian amulet Nefer with male cross and female orb, considered as an amulet of blessedness, a charm of sexual harmony.
Name
The word :wikt:cross|cross is recorded in 10th-century Old English as cros, exclusively for the instrument of Christ's crucifixion, replacing the native Old English word rood. The word's history is complicated; it appears to have entered English from Old Irish, possibly via Old Norse, ultimately from the Latin , "stake, cross". The English verb to cross arises from the noun, first in the sense "to make the sign of the cross"; the generic meaning "to intersect" develops in the 15th century.The Latin word was, however, influenced by popular etymology by a native Germanic word reconstructed as *krukjo. This word, by conflation with Latin crux, gave rise to Old French crocier, the term for a shepherd's crook, adopted in English as crosier.
Latin crux referred to the gibbet where criminals were executed, a stake or pole, with or without, on which the condemned were impaled or hanged, but more particularly a cross or the pole of a carriage. The derived verb means "to put to death on the cross" or, more frequently, "to put to the rack, to torture, torment", especially in reference to mental troubles.
In the Roman world, furca replaced crux as the name of some cross-like instruments for lethal and temporary punishment, ranging from a forked cross to a gibbet or gallows.
The field of etymology is of no help in any effort to trace a supposed original meaning of crux. A crux can be of various shapes: from a single beam used for impaling or suspending to the various composite kinds of cross made from more beams than one. The latter shapes include not only the traditional †-shaped cross, but also the T-shaped cross, which the descriptions in antiquity of the execution cross indicate as the normal form in use at that time, and the X-shaped cross.
The Greek equivalent of Latin crux "stake, gibbet" is stauros, found in texts of four centuries or more before the gospels and always in the plural number to indicate a stake or pole. From the first century BC, it is used to indicate an instrument used in executions. The Greek word is used in descriptions in antiquity of the execution cross, which indicate that its normal shape was similar to the Greek letter tau.
History
Pre-Christian
Due to the simplicity of the design, cross-shaped incisions make their appearance from deep prehistory; as petroglyphs in European cult caves, dating back to the beginning of the Upper Paleolithic, and throughout prehistory to the Iron Age.Also of prehistoric age are numerous variants of the simple cross mark, including the crux gammata with curving or angular lines, and the Egyptian crux ansata with a loop.
Speculation has associated the cross symbol – even in the prehistoric period – with astronomical or cosmological symbology involving
"four elements" or the cardinal points, or the unity of a vertical axis mundi or celestial pole with the horizontal world. Speculation of this kind became especially popular in the mid- to late-19th century in the context of comparative mythology seeking to tie Christian mythology to ancient cosmological myths. Influential works in this vein included
G. de Mortillet, L. Müller, W. W. Blake, Ansault, etc.
character LAK-617 : a cruciform arrangement of five boxes; scribes could use the central, larger box as container for other characters.
In the European Bronze Age the cross symbol appeared to carry a religious meaning, perhaps as a symbol of consecration, especially pertaining to burial.
The cross sign occurs trivially in tally marks, and develops into a number symbol independently in the Roman numerals, the Chinese rod numerals and the Brahmi numerals.
In the Phoenician alphabet and derived scripts, the cross symbol represented the phoneme /t/, i.e. the letter taw, which is the historical predecessor of Latin T. The letter name taw means "mark", presumably continuing the Egyptian hieroglyph "two crossed sticks".
According to W. E. Vine's Expository Dictionary of New Testament Words, worshippers of Tammuz in Chaldea and thereabouts used the cross as symbol of that god.
Christian cross
The shape of the cross, as represented by the letter T, came to be used as a "seal" or symbol of Early Christianity by the 2nd century. Clement of Alexandria in the early 3rd century calls it τὸ κυριακὸν σημεῖον he repeats the idea, current as early as the Epistle of Barnabas, that the number 318 in Genesis 14:14 was a foreshadowing of the cross and of Jesus. Clement's contemporary Tertullian rejects the accusation that Christians are crucis religiosi, and returns the accusation by likening the worship of pagan idols to the worship of poles or stakes.In his book De Corona, written in 204, Tertullian tells how it was already a tradition for Christians to trace repeatedly on their foreheads the sign of the cross.
While early Christians used the T-shape to represent the cross in writing and gesture, the use of the Greek cross and Latin cross, i.e. crosses with intersecting beams, appears in Christian art towards the end of Late Antiquity. An early example of the cruciform halo, used to identify Christ in paintings, is found in the Miracles of the Loaves and Fishes mosaic of Sant'Apollinare Nuovo, Ravenna.
The Patriarchal cross, a Latin cross with an additional horizontal bar, first appears in the 10th century.
A wide variation of cross symbols is introduced for the purposes of heraldry beginning in the age of the Crusades.
Cross-like marks and graphemes
The cross mark is used to mark a position, or as a check mark, but also to mark :wikt:deletion|deletion.Derived from Greek Chi are the Latin letter X, Cyrillic Kha and possibly runic Gyfu.
Egyptian hieroglyphs involving cross shapes include ankh "life", ndj "protect" and nfr "good; pleasant, beautiful".
Sumerian cuneiform had a simple cross-shaped character, consisting of a horizontal and a vertical wedge, read as maš "tax, yield, interest"; the superposition of two diagonal wedges results in a decussate cross, read as pap "first, pre-eminent".
The cuneiform script has other, more complex, cruciform characters, consisting of an arrangement of boxes or the fourfold arrangement of other characters, including the archaic cuneiform characters LAK-210, LAK-276, LAK-278, LAK-617 and the classical sign EZEN.
Phoenician tāw is still cross-shaped in Paleo-Hebrew alphabet and in some Old Italic scripts, and its descendant T becomes again cross-shaped in the Latin minuscule t.
The plus sign is derived from Latin t via a simplification of a ligature for et "and".
The letter Aleph is cross-shaped in Aramaic and paleo-Hebrew.
Egyptian hieroglyphs with cross-shapes include Gardiner Z9 - Z11.
Other, unrelated cross-shaped letters include Brahmi ka and Old Turkic d² and Old Hungarian b, and Katakana ナ na and メme.
The multiplication sign , often attributed to William Oughtred apparently had been in occasional use since the mid 16th century.
Other typographical symbols resembling crosses include the dagger or obelus,
the Chinese and Roman ten.
Unicode has a variety of cross symbols in the "Dingbat" block :
The Miscellaneous Symbols block adds three specific Christian cross variants, viz. the Patriarchal cross,
Cross of Lorraine and "Cross of Jerusalem".
Cross-like emblems
The following is a list of cross symbols, except for variants of the Christian cross and Heraldic crosses, for which see the dedicated lists at Christian cross variants and Crosses in heraldry, respectively.| Picture | Cross name | Description |
| Ankh | The ankh or crux ansata, an Egyptian hieroglyph representing "life". | |
| Basque cross | The Basque cross or lauburu. | |
| the Sun cross | The "sun cross" or "wheel cross" appears with some regularity in prehistoric European artefacts, usually interpreted as a solar symbol, perhaps representing the spoked wheel of the Sun chariot. | |
| Swastika | The swastika or crux gammata, historically used as a symbol in Buddhism, Jainism and Hinduism, and widely popular in the early 20th century as a symbol of good luck or prosperity before adopted as a symbol of Nazism in the 1920s and 30s. |
;As a design element
| Picture | Cross name | Description |
| Compass rose | A compass rose, sometimes called a windrose, is a figure on a compass, map, nautical chart or monument used to display the orientation of the cardinal directions and often appears as a cross tapering to triangular points. | |
| Crossed keys | Symbol of the Papacy used in various emblems representing the keys to heaven. | |
| Crossed swords | The crossed swords symbol is used to represent battlegrounds on maps. It is also used to show that person died in battle or that a war machine was lost in action. Two crossed swords also look like a Christian cross and the mixed symbolism has been used in military decorations. It is also a popular way to display swords on a wall often with a shield in the center | |
| Four-leaf clover | Used as a symbol for luck as well as a stand in for a cross in various works. | |
| Skull and crossbones | Traditionally used to mark Spanish cemeteries; the symbol evolved to represent death/danger, poison, and pirates. |
Physical gestures
Cross shapes are made by a variety of physical gestures. Crossing the fingers of one hand is a common invocation of the symbol. The sign of the cross associated with Christian genuflection is made with one hand: in Eastern Orthodox tradition the sequence is head-heart-right shoulder-left shoulder, while in Oriental Orthodox, Catholic and Anglican tradition the sequence is head-heart-left-right.Crossing the index fingers of both hands represents and a charm against evil in European folklore. Other gestures involving more than one hand include the "cross my heart" movement associated with making a promise and the Tau shape of the referee's "time out" hand signal.
In Chinese-speaking cultures, crossed index fingers represent the number 10.
Other things known as "cross"
- Crux, or the Southern Cross, is a cross-shaped constellation in the Southern Hemisphere. It appears on the national flags of Australia, Brazil, New Zealand, Niue, Papua New Guinea and Samoa.
- Notable free-standing Christian crosses : The tallest cross, at 152.4 metres high, is part of Francisco Franco's monumental "Valley of the Fallen", the Monumento Nacional de Santa Cruz del Valle de los Caidos in Spain. A cross at the junction of Interstates 57 and 70 in Effingham, Illinois, is purportedly the tallest in the United States, at 198 feet tall. The tallest freestanding cross in the United States is located in Saint Augustine, FL and stands 208 feet.
- The tombs at Naqsh-e Rustam, Iran, made in the 5th century BC, are carved into the cliffside in the shape of a cross. They are known as the "Persian crosses".
- Cross-ndj
- Cross cap -topological surface
- Crossroads
- Crossbuck