Defective matrix


In linear algebra, a defective matrix is a square matrix that does not have a complete basis of eigenvectors, and is therefore not diagonalizable. In particular, an n × n matrix is defective if and only if it does not have n linearly independent eigenvectors. A complete basis is formed by augmenting the eigenvectors with generalized eigenvectors, which are necessary for solving defective systems of ordinary differential equations and other problems.
An n × n defective matrix always has fewer than n distinct eigenvalues, since distinct eigenvalues always have linearly independent eigenvectors. In particular, a defective matrix has one or more eigenvalues λ with algebraic multiplicity m > 1, but fewer than m linearly independent eigenvectors associated with λ. If the algebraic multiplicity of λ exceeds its geometric multiplicity, then λ is said to be a defective eigenvalue. However, every eigenvalue with algebraic multiplicity m always has m linearly independent generalized eigenvectors.
A Hermitian matrix or a unitary matrix is never defective; more generally, a normal matrix is never defective.

Jordan block

Any nontrivial Jordan block of size 2×2 or larger is defective. For example, the n × n Jordan block,
has an eigenvalue, λ, with algebraic multiplicity n, but only one distinct eigenvector,
In fact, any defective matrix has a nontrivial Jordan normal form, which is as close as one can come to diagonalization of such a matrix.

Example

A simple example of a defective matrix is:
which has a double eigenvalue of 3 but only one distinct eigenvector
.