Electron shell
In chemistry and atomic physics, an electron shell may be thought of as an orbit followed by electrons around an atom's nucleus. The closest shell to the nucleus is called the " shell", followed by the " shell", then the " shell", and so on farther and farther from the nucleus. The shells correspond to the principal quantum numbers or are labeled alphabetically with the letters used in X-ray notation.
Each shell can contain only a fixed number of electrons: The first shell can hold up to two electrons, the second shell can hold up to eight electrons, the third shell can hold up to 18 and so on. The general formula is that the nth shell can in principle hold up to 2 electrons. For an explanation of why electrons exist in these shells see electron configuration.
Each shell consists of one or more subshells, and each subshell consists of one or more atomic orbitals.
History
The shell terminology comes from Arnold Sommerfeld's modification of the Bohr model. Sommerfeld retained Bohr's planetary model, but added mildly elliptical orbits to explain the fine spectroscopic structure of some elements. The multiple electrons with the same principal quantum number had close orbits that formed a "shell" of positive thickness instead of the infinitely thin circular orbit of Bohr's model.The existence of electron shells was first observed experimentally in Charles Barkla's and Henry Moseley's X-ray absorption studies. Barkla labeled them with the letters K, L, M, N, O, P, and Q. The origin of this terminology was alphabetic. A "J" series was also suspected, though later experiments indicated that the K absorption lines are produced by the innermost electrons. These letters were later found to correspond to the n values 1, 2, 3, etc. They are used in the spectroscopic Siegbahn notation.
Subshells
Each shell is composed of one or more subshells, which are themselves composed of atomic orbitals. For example, the first shell has one subshell, called ; the second shell has two subshells, called and ; the third shell has,, and ; the fourth shell has,, and ; the fifth shell has,,, and and can theoretically hold more in the subshell that is not occupied in the ground-state electron configuration of any known element. The various possible subshells are shown in the following table:| Subshell label | ℓ | Max electrons | Shells containing it | Historical name |
| 0 | 2 | Every shell | sharp | |
| 1 | 6 | 2nd shell and higher | principal | |
| 2 | 10 | 3rd shell and higher | diffuse | |
| 3 | 14 | 4th shell and higher | fundamental | |
| 4 | 18 | 5th shell and higher |
- The first column is the "subshell label", a lowercase-letter label for the type of subshell. For example, the " subshell" is a subshell of the fourth shell, with the type described in the first row.
- The second column is the azimuthal quantum number of the subshell. The precise definition involves quantum mechanics, but it is a number that characterizes the subshell.
- The third column is the maximum number of electrons that can be put into a subshell of that type. For example, the top row says that each -type subshell can have at most two electrons in it. In each case the figure is 4 greater than the one above it.
- The fourth column says which shells have a subshell of that type. For example, looking at the top two rows, every shell has an subshell, while only the second shell and higher have a subshell.
- The final column gives the historical origin of the labels,,, and. They come from early studies of atomic spectral lines. The other labels, namely, and, are an alphabetic continuation following the last historically originated label of.
Number of electrons in each shell
- Each subshell holds at most 2 electrons
- Each subshell holds at most 6 electrons
- Each subshell holds at most 10 electrons
- Each subshell holds at most 14 electrons
- Each subshell holds at most 18 electrons
| Shell name | Subshell name | Subshell max electrons | Shell max electrons |
| K | 2 | 2 | |
| L | 2 | rowspan="2"2 + 6 = 8 | |
| L | 6 | - | |
| M | 2 | rowspan="3"2 + 6 + 10 = 18 | |
| M | 6 | - | |
| M | 10 | - | |
| N | 2 | rowspan="4"2 + 6 + 10 + 14 = 32 | |
| N | 6 | - | |
| N | 10 | - | |
| N | 14 | - | |
| O | 2 | rowspan="5"2 + 6 + 10 + 14 + 18 = 50 | |
| O | 6 | - | |
| O | 10 | - | |
| O | 14 | - | |
| O | 18 | - |
Although that formula gives the maximum in principle, in fact that maximum is only achieved for the first four shells. No known element has more than 32 electrons in any one shell. This is because the subshells are filled according to the Aufbau principle. The first elements to have more than 32 electrons in one shell would belong to the g-block of period 8 of the periodic table. These elements would have some electrons in their subshell and thus have more than 32 electrons in the O shell.
Subshell energies and filling order
Although it is sometimes stated that all the electrons in a shell have the same energy, this is an approximation. However, the electrons in one subshell do have exactly the same level of energy, with later subshells having more energy per electron than earlier ones. This effect is great enough that the energy ranges associated with shells can overlap.The filling of the shells and subshells with electrons proceeds from subshells of lower energy to subshells of higher energy. This follows the n + ℓ rule which is also commonly known as the Madelung rule. Subshells with a lower n + ℓ value are filled before those with higher n + ℓ values. In the case of equal n + ℓ values, the subshell with a lower n value is filled first.
List of elements with electrons per shell
The list below gives the elements arranged by increasing atomic number and shows the number of electrons per shell. At a glance, the subsets of the list show obvious patterns. In particular, every set of five elements before each noble gas heavier than helium have the number of electrons in the outermost shell in arithmetic progression, namely three to seven.Sorting the table by chemical group shows additional patterns, especially with respect to the last two outermost shells.
The list below is primarily consistent with the Aufbau principle. However, there are a number of exceptions to the rule; for example palladium has no electrons in the fifth shell, unlike other atoms with lower atomic number. Some entries in the table are uncertain, when experimental data is unavailable.
| Z | Element | No. of electrons/shell | Group |
| 1 | Hydrogen | 1 | 1 |
| 2 | Helium | 2 | 18 |
| 3 | Lithium | 2, 1 | 1 |
| 4 | Beryllium | 2, 2 | 2 |
| 5 | Boron | 2, 3 | 13 |
| 6 | Carbon | 2, 4 | 14 |
| 7 | Nitrogen | 2, 5 | 15 |
| 8 | Oxygen | 2, 6 | 16 |
| 9 | Fluorine | 2, 7 | 17 |
| 10 | Neon | 2, 8 | 18 |
| 11 | Sodium | 2, 8, 1 | 1 |
| 12 | Magnesium | 2, 8, 2 | 2 |
| 13 | Aluminium | 2, 8, 3 | 13 |
| 14 | Silicon | 2, 8, 4 | 14 |
| 15 | Phosphorus | 2, 8, 5 | 15 |
| 16 | Sulfur | 2, 8, 6 | 16 |
| 17 | Chlorine | 2, 8, 7 | 17 |
| 18 | Argon | 2, 8, 8 | 18 |
| 19 | Potassium | 2, 8, 8, 1 | 1 |
| 20 | Calcium | 2, 8, 8, 2 | 2 |
| 21 | Scandium | 2, 8, 9, 2 | 3 |
| 22 | Titanium | 2, 8, 10, 2 | 4 |
| 23 | Vanadium | 2, 8, 11, 2 | 5 |
| 24 | Chromium | 2, 8, 13, 1 | 6 |
| 25 | Manganese | 2, 8, 13, 2 | 7 |
| 26 | Iron | 2, 8, 14, 2 | 8 |
| 27 | Cobalt | 2, 8, 15, 2 | 9 |
| 28 | Nickel | 2, 8, 16, 2 | 10 |
| 29 | Copper | 2, 8, 18, 1 | 11 |
| 30 | Zinc | 2, 8, 18, 2 | 12 |
| 31 | Gallium | 2, 8, 18, 3 | 13 |
| 32 | Germanium | 2, 8, 18, 4 | 14 |
| 33 | Arsenic | 2, 8, 18, 5 | 15 |
| 34 | Selenium | 2, 8, 18, 6 | 16 |
| 35 | Bromine | 2, 8, 18, 7 | 17 |
| 36 | Krypton | 2, 8, 18, 8 | 18 |
| 37 | Rubidium | 2, 8, 18, 8, 1 | 1 |
| 38 | Strontium | 2, 8, 18, 8, 2 | 2 |
| 39 | Yttrium | 2, 8, 18, 9, 2 | 3 |
| 40 | Zirconium | 2, 8, 18, 10, 2 | 4 |
| 41 | Niobium | 2, 8, 18, 12, 1 | 5 |
| 42 | Molybdenum | 2, 8, 18, 13, 1 | 6 |
| 43 | Technetium | 2, 8, 18, 13, 2 | 7 |
| 44 | Ruthenium | 2, 8, 18, 15, 1 | 8 |
| 45 | Rhodium | 2, 8, 18, 16, 1 | 9 |
| 46 | Palladium | 2, 8, 18, 18 | 10 |
| 47 | Silver | 2, 8, 18, 18, 1 | 11 |
| 48 | Cadmium | 2, 8, 18, 18, 2 | 12 |
| 49 | Indium | 2, 8, 18, 18, 3 | 13 |
| 50 | Tin | 2, 8, 18, 18, 4 | 14 |
| 51 | Antimony | 2, 8, 18, 18, 5 | 15 |
| 52 | Tellurium | 2, 8, 18, 18, 6 | 16 |
| 53 | Iodine | 2, 8, 18, 18, 7 | 17 |
| 54 | Xenon | 2, 8, 18, 18, 8 | 18 |
| 55 | Caesium | 2, 8, 18, 18, 8, 1 | 1 |
| 56 | Barium | 2, 8, 18, 18, 8, 2 | 2 |
| 57 | Lanthanum | 2, 8, 18, 18, 9, 2 | 3 |
| 58 | Cerium | 2, 8, 18, 19, 9, 2 | - |
| 59 | Praseodymium | 2, 8, 18, 21, 8, 2 | - |
| 60 | Neodymium | 2, 8, 18, 22, 8, 2 | - |
| 61 | Promethium | 2, 8, 18, 23, 8, 2 | - |
| 62 | Samarium | 2, 8, 18, 24, 8, 2 | - |
| 63 | Europium | 2, 8, 18, 25, 8, 2 | - |
| 64 | Gadolinium | 2, 8, 18, 25, 9, 2 | - |
| 65 | Terbium | 2, 8, 18, 27, 8, 2 | - |
| 66 | Dysprosium | 2, 8, 18, 28, 8, 2 | - |
| 67 | Holmium | 2, 8, 18, 29, 8, 2 | - |
| 68 | Erbium | 2, 8, 18, 30, 8, 2 | - |
| 69 | Thulium | 2, 8, 18, 31, 8, 2 | - |
| 70 | Ytterbium | 2, 8, 18, 32, 8, 2 | - |
| 71 | Lutetium | 2, 8, 18, 32, 9, 2 | - |
| 72 | Hafnium | 2, 8, 18, 32, 10, 2 | 4 |
| 73 | Tantalum | 2, 8, 18, 32, 11, 2 | 5 |
| 74 | Tungsten | 2, 8, 18, 32, 12, 2 | 6 |
| 75 | Rhenium | 2, 8, 18, 32, 13, 2 | 7 |
| 76 | Osmium | 2, 8, 18, 32, 14, 2 | 8 |
| 77 | Iridium | 2, 8, 18, 32, 15, 2 | 9 |
| 78 | Platinum | 2, 8, 18, 32, 17, 1 | 10 |
| 79 | Gold | 2, 8, 18, 32, 18, 1 | 11 |
| 80 | Mercury | 2, 8, 18, 32, 18, 2 | 12 |
| 81 | Thallium | 2, 8, 18, 32, 18, 3 | 13 |
| 82 | Lead | 2, 8, 18, 32, 18, 4 | 14 |
| 83 | Bismuth | 2, 8, 18, 32, 18, 5 | 15 |
| 84 | Polonium | 2, 8, 18, 32, 18, 6 | 16 |
| 85 | Astatine | 2, 8, 18, 32, 18, 7 | 17 |
| 86 | Radon | 2, 8, 18, 32, 18, 8 | 18 |
| 87 | Francium | 2, 8, 18, 32, 18, 8, 1 | 1 |
| 88 | Radium | 2, 8, 18, 32, 18, 8, 2 | 2 |
| 89 | Actinium | 2, 8, 18, 32, 18, 9, 2 | 3 |
| 90 | Thorium | 2, 8, 18, 32, 18, 10, 2 | - |
| 91 | Protactinium | 2, 8, 18, 32, 20, 9, 2 | - |
| 92 | Uranium | 2, 8, 18, 32, 21, 9, 2 | - |
| 93 | Neptunium | 2, 8, 18, 32, 22, 9, 2 | - |
| 94 | Plutonium | 2, 8, 18, 32, 24, 8, 2 | - |
| 95 | Americium | 2, 8, 18, 32, 25, 8, 2 | - |
| 96 | Curium | 2, 8, 18, 32, 25, 9, 2 | - |
| 97 | Berkelium | 2, 8, 18, 32, 27, 8, 2 | - |
| 98 | Californium | 2, 8, 18, 32, 28, 8, 2 | - |
| 99 | Einsteinium | 2, 8, 18, 32, 29, 8, 2 | - |
| 100 | Fermium | 2, 8, 18, 32, 30, 8, 2 | - |
| 101 | Mendelevium | 2, 8, 18, 32, 31, 8, 2 | - |
| 102 | Nobelium | 2, 8, 18, 32, 32, 8, 2 | - |
| 103 | Lawrencium | 2, 8, 18, 32, 32, 8, 3 | - |
| 104 | Rutherfordium | 2, 8, 18, 32, 32, 10, 2 | 4 |
| 105 | Dubnium | 2, 8, 18, 32, 32, 11, 2 | 5 |
| 106 | Seaborgium | 2, 8, 18, 32, 32, 12, 2 | 6 |
| 107 | Bohrium | 2, 8, 18, 32, 32, 13, 2 | 7 |
| 108 | Hassium | 2, 8, 18, 32, 32, 14, 2 | 8 |
| 109 | Meitnerium | 2, 8, 18, 32, 32, 15, 2 | 9 |
| 110 | Darmstadtium | 2, 8, 18, 32, 32, 16, 2 | 10 |
| 111 | Roentgenium | 2, 8, 18, 32, 32, 17, 2 | 11 |
| 112 | Copernicium | 2, 8, 18, 32, 32, 18, 2 | 12 |
| 113 | Nihonium | 2, 8, 18, 32, 32, 18, 3 | 13 |
| 114 | Flerovium | 2, 8, 18, 32, 32, 18, 4 | 14 |
| 115 | Moscovium | 2, 8, 18, 32, 32, 18, 5 | 15 |
| 116 | Livermorium | 2, 8, 18, 32, 32, 18, 6 | 16 |
| 117 | Tennessine | 2, 8, 18, 32, 32, 18, 7 | 17 |
| 118 | Oganesson | 2, 8, 18, 32, 32, 18, 8 | 18 |