The development of electron spectroscopy can be considered to have begun in 1887 when the German physicistHeinrich Rudolf Hertz discovered the photoelectric effect but was unable to explain it. In 1900, Max Planck suggested that energy carried by electromagnetic waves could only be released in "packets" of energy. In 1905 Albert Einstein explained Planck's discovery and the photoelectric effect. He presented the hypothesis that light energy is carried in discrete quantized packets, each with energy hν to explain the experimental dobservations. Two years after this publication, in 1907, P. D. Innes recorded the first XPS spectrum. After numerous developments and the Second World War, Kai Siegbahn with his research group in Uppsala, Sweden registered in 1954 the first XPS device to produce a high energy-resolution XPS spectrum. In 1967, Siegbahn published a comprehensive study of XPS and its usefulness, which he called electron spectroscopy for chemical analysis. Concurrently with Siegbahn's work, in 1962, David W. Turner at Imperial College London developed ultraviolet photoelectron spectroscopy for molecular species using a helium lamp.
Basic theory
In electron spectroscopy, depending on the technique, irradiating the sample with high-energy particles such as X-ray photons, electron beam electrons, or ultraviolet radiation photons, causes Auger electrons and photoelectrons to be emitted. Figure 1 illustrates this on the basis of a single particle in which, for example, the incoming X-ray photon from a particular energy range transfers its energy to an electron in the inner shell of an atom. Photon absorption causes electron emission leaves a hole in the atomic shell. The hole can be filled in two ways, forming different characteristic rays that are specific to each element. As the electron in the shell of a higher energy level fills the hole, a fluorescent photon is emitted. In the Auger phenomenon, the electron in the shell of the higher energy level fills the hole that causes the adjacent or nearby electron to emit, forming the Auger electron. As can be seen from discussed above and figure 1, Auger electrons and photoelectrons are different in their physical origin, however, both types of electrons carry similar information about the chemical elements in material surfaces. Each element has its own special Auger electron or photon electron energy from which these can be identified. The binding energy of a photoelectron can be calculated by the formula below. where Ebinding is the binding energy of the photoelectron, hν is the energy of the incoming radiation particle, Ekinetic is the kinetic energy of the photoelectron measured by the device and is the work function. The kinetic energy of the Auger electron is approximately equal to the energy difference between the binding energies of the electron shells involved in the Auger process. This can be calculated as follows: where Ekinetic is the kinetic energy of the Auger electron, hν is the energy of the incoming radiation particle and EB is first outer shell binding energy and EC is second outer shell binding energies.
