European early modern humans
"European early modern humans" is a term for the earliest populations of anatomically modern humans in Europe, during the
Upper Paleolithic. It is taken to include fossils from throughout the Last Glacial Maximum, covering the period of about 48,000 to 15,000 years ago, spanning the Bohunician, Aurignacian, Gravettian, Solutrean and Magdalenian periods.
The term EEMH is equivalent to Cro-Magnon Man, or "Cro-Magnons", a term derived from the Cro-Magnon rock shelter in southwestern France, where the first EEMH were found in 1868. Louis Lartet proposed Homo sapiens fossilis as the systematic name for "Cro-Magnon Man". W. K. Gregory proposed the subspecies name Homo sapiens cro-magnonensis. In literature published since the late 1990s, the term EEMH is generally preferred over the common name Cro-Magnon, which has no formal taxonomic status, as "it refers neither to a species or subspecies nor to an archaeological phase or culture". Use of "Cro-Magnon" is mostly restricted to times after the beginning of the Aurignacian proper, c. 37 to 35 ka.
The oldest known EEMH fossil remains are found in Bacho Kiro cave, Bulgaria. They are dated from c. 47,000 BC. up to c. 44,000 BC. Other known remains of EEMH confidently dated to before were found at Riparo Mochi, Geissenklösterle, and Isturitz. Other known remains of EEMH can be dated to before with some certainty: those from Grotta del Cavallo in Italy, and from Kents Cavern in England, have been radiocarbon dated to. A number of other early fossils are dated close to or just after, including fossils found in Romania and Russia.
The description as "modern" is used as contrasting with the "archaic" Homo heidelbergensis and Homo neanderthalensis, who lived within Europe during about 400 ka to 37 ka, and who with the arrival of EEMH became extinct or absorbed into their lineage.
The EEMH lineage in the European Mesolithic is also known as "West European Hunter-Gatherer". These mesolithic hunter-gatherers emerge after the end of the LGM and are described as more gracile than the Upper Paleolithic Cro-Magnons. The WHG lineage survives in contemporary Europeans, albeit only as a minor contribution overwhelmed by the later Neolithic and Bronze Age migrations.
Research history
The first EEMH remains, 5 skeletons, were discovered by French palaeontologist Louis Lartet in 1868 at the Cro-Magnon rock shelter, Les Eyzies, Dordogne, France, after the area was accidentally discovered while clearing land for a railway station. Further excavation around Les Eyzies uncovered stone tools and harpoons, and more EEMH remains were being found in Western Europe. Because no other early modern human remains were being discovered elsewhere, it was often assumed that this was evidence that humans evolved in Western Europe. By World War II, intensive archaeological efforts had expanded well enough beyond Europe to place humanity's origins in Africa.Since Carl Linnaeus invented the classification system in 1735 with his Systema Naturae, classifying humans as a species Homo sapiens, subsequent anthropologists began splitting off putative subspecies and sub-races of present-day humans based on unreliable and pseudoscientific metrics gathered from anthropometry, physiognomy, and phrenology in the late 18th century and continuing into the 20th. Because it was believed that mixed races were an affront to nature, EEMH were considered to have been ancestors of a present-day sub-race. Among the earliest attempts to classify EEMH was done by racial anthropologists Joseph Deniker and William Z. Ripley in 1900, who characterised them as tall and intelligent proto-Aryans superior to other races who descended from Scandinavia and Germany. Further race theories revolved around progressively lighter, blonder, and superior races or subspecies evolving in Central Europe and spreading out in waves to replace their darker ancestors, culminating in the "Nordic race". These aligned well with Nordicism and Pan-Germanism, which gained popularity just before World War I and was notably used by the Nazis to justify the conquest of Europe and the supremacy of the German people. Stature was among the characteristics used to distinguish these sub-races, so taller EEMH such as the French Cro-Magnon, Paviland, and Grimaldi were classified as ancestral to the "Nordic race", and smaller ones such as Combe-Capelle and Chancelade man were considered the forerunners of either the "Mediterranean race" or "Eskimoids". The notion of sub-races is now outdated.
Chronology
There appear to have been several modern human immigration and disappearance events on the European continent, whereupon they interacted with the indigenous Neanderthals which had already inhabited Europe for hundreds of thousands of years. In the Middle Palaeolithic, modern humans have been identified 210,000 years ago in Apidima Cave, Greece, and they were replaced by Neanderthals by 170,000 years ago.The earliest indication of Upper Palaeolithic modern human immigration into Europe is the Balkan Bohunician industry beginning 48,000 years ago, likely deriving from the Levantine Emiran industry, and the earliest bones in Europe date to roughly 45–43 thousand years ago in Bulgaria, Italy, and Britain. It is unclear, while migrating westward, if they followed the Danube or went along the Mediterranean coast. About 45 to 44 thousand years ago, the Proto-Aurignacian spread out across Europe, probably descending from the Near Eastern Ahmarian culture. After 40,000 years ago with the onset of Heinrich event 4, the Aurignacian proper evolved perhaps in South-Central Europe, and rapidly replaced other cultures across the continent. This wave of modern humans replaced Neanderthal and their Mousterian culture. In the Danube Valley, the Aurignacian features sites far and few between, compared to later traditions, until 35,000 years ago. From here, the "Typical Aurignacian" becomes quite prevalent, and extends until 29,000 years ago.
The Aurignacian was gradually replaced by the Gravettian culture, but it is unclear when the Aurignacian went extinct because it is poorly defined. "Aurignacoid" tools are identified as late as 18 to 15 thousand years ago into the Last Glacial Maximum. It is also unclear where the Gravettian originated from as it diverges strongly from the Aurignician. Hypotheses include evolution: in Central Europe from the Szeletian existing from 41 to 37 thousand years ago; or from the Ahmarian or similar cultures from the Near East or the Caucasus from before 40,000 years ago. It is further debated where the earliest occurrence is identified, with the former hypothesis arguing for Germany about 37,500 years ago, and the latter Buran-Kaya III rockshelter in Crimea about 38 to 36 thousand years ago.
During the LGM proper, beginning about 22 ka, there were two main refugia, the Solutrean in Southwestern Europe, and the Epi-Gravettian in Italy and Southeastern Europe. With advancing deglaciation after about 17,000 years ago, the Magdalenian appears, which is transitional to the Mesolithic period used by West European Hunter-Gatherers starting after 14,000 years ago. At this point in time, the first major warm period since the end of the LGM had just begun, and Near Eastern peoples began migrating into and interbreeding with the indigenous Europeans.
Europe was completely re-peopled during the Holocene climatic optimum from 9 to 5 thousand years ago. The WHG contributed significantly to the present-day European genome, alongside Ancient North Eurasians which descended from the Siberian Mal'ta–Buret' culture. Unlike ANE, the WHG genome is not prevalent on both sides of the Caucasus, and is only seen in any significant measure west of the Caucasus. Most present-day Europeans have a 60–80% WHG/ ratio, and the 8,000 year old Mesolithic Loschbour man seems to have had a similar pattern. Near Eastern Neolithic farmers which split from the European hunter-gatherers about 40,000 years ago started to spread out across Europe starting 8,000 years ago, ushering in the Neolithic. EEF contribute about 30% of ancestry to present-day Baltic populations, and up to 90% in present-day Mediterranean populations. The latter may have inherited WHG ancestry via EEF introgression. The Eastern Hunter-Gatherers population identified around the steppes of the Urals also spread eastward, and the Scandinavian Hunter-Gatherers appear to be a mix of WHG and EHG. Around 4,500 years ago, the immigration of the Yamnaya and Corded Ware cultures from the eastern steppes brought the Bronze Age, the Proto-Indo-European language, and the present-day genetic makeup of Europeans.
Biology
Physical attributes
For 28 modern human specimens from 190–25 thousand years ago, average brain volume was estimated to have been about, and for 13 EEMH about. In comparison, present-day humans average, which is notably smaller. This is because the EEMH brain, though within the variation for present-day humans, exhibits longer average frontal lobe length and taller occipital lobe height. The parietal lobes, however, are shorter in EEMH. It is unclear if this could equate to any functional differences between present-day and early modern humans.EEMH are physically similar to present-day humans, with a globular braincase, completely flat face, gracile brow ridge, and defined chin. However, the bones of EEMH are somewhat thicker and more robust. Compared to modern Europeans, EEMH have broader and shorter faces, more prominent brow ridges, bigger teeth, shorter upper jaws, more horizontally oriented cheekbones, and more rectangular eye sockets. The latter three are seen in present-day East Asians.
In early Upper Palaeolithic Western Europe, 20 men and 10 women were estimated to have averaged and, respectively. This is similar to post-industrial modern Northern Europeans. In contrast, in a sample of 21 and 15 late Upper Palaeolithic Western European men and women, the averages were and, similar to pre-industrial modern humans. It is unclear why earlier EEMH were taller, especially considering that cold-climate creatures are short-limbed and thus short-statured to better retain body heat. This has variously been explained as: retention of a hypothetically tall ancestral condition; higher quality diet and nutrition due to the hunting of megafauna which later became extinct; functional adaptation to increase stride length and movement efficiency while running during a hunt; increasing territorialism among later EEMH reducing gene flow between communities and increasing inbreeding rate; or statistical bias due to small sample size or because taller people were more likely to achieve higher status in a group and thus were more likely to be buried and preserved.
Their vocal apparatus was like that of present-day humans and they could speak.
It was generally assumed that EEMH, like present-day Europeans, were light skinned as an adaptation to absorb vitamin D from the less luminous sun farther north. However, of the 3 predominant genes responsible for lighter skin in present-day Europeans—KITLG, SLC24A5, and SLC45A2—the latter two, as well as the TYRP1 gene associated with lighter hair and eye colour, experienced selection as late as 19 to 11 thousand years ago during the Mesolithic transition. These three became more widespread across the continent in the Bronze Age. The variation of the gene which is associated with blue eyes in present-day humans, OCA2, seems to have descended from a common ancestor about 10–6 thousand years ago somewhere in Northern Europe. Such a late timing was potentially caused by overall low population and/or low cross-continental movement required for such an adaptive shift in skin colouration. However, KITLG was selected in EEMH approximately 30,000 years ago.
Genetics
Genetic evidence suggests early modern humans interbred with Neanderthals. Genes in the present-day genome are estimated to have entered about 65 to 47 thousand years ago, most likely in West Asia soon after modern humans left Africa. The approximately 40,000 year old modern human Oase 2 was found, in 2015, to have had 6–9% Neanderthal DNA, indicating a Neanderthal ancestor up to four to six generations earlier, but this hybrid Romanian population does not appear to have made a substantial contribution to the genomes of later Europeans. Therefore, it is possible that interbreeding was common between Neanderthals and EEMH which did not contribute to the present-day genome. EEMH which did contribute to the present-day European genome appear to have had descended from a single founder population 37,000 years ago.While anatomically modern humans may have been present in West Asia since before 250,000 years ago, modern non-Africans mainly descend from the main successful out of Africa expansion at around 65–55 ka. This movement was an offshoot of the rapid expansion within East Africa associated with mtDNA haplogroup L3. EEMH are associated with mtDNA haplogroup N, also widespread in Central Asia, and with Y-chromosomal haplogroup CF.
Mitochondrial DNA analysis places the early European population as sister group to the East Asian groups of the Upper Palaeolithic, dating the divergence to some 50,000 years ago. EEMH and East Asians did not become reproductively isolated until about 25,000 years ago.
According to Fu et al., the Mesolithic WHG lineage already contains post-LGM admixture from the Near East and Caucasus, ending the period of isolation in EEMH of c. 37 to 14 ka.
In terms of unipaternal lineages, EEMH were descended from the patrilineal Y-DNA haplogroups Haplogroup IJ and C1, and maternal mt-DNA haplogroup N. Y-haplogroup IJ likely arose still in Southwest Asia. Haplogroup I emerged about 35 to 30 ka, either in Europe or West Asia. Y-haplogroup K2a* is associated with Central Asia, found in Siberian Ust'-Ishim man, but also in the Proto-Aurignacian Oase 1 fossil. Mt-haplogroup U5 arose in Europe just prior to the LGM, between 35 and 25 ka.
"Bichon man", an Azilian skeleton found in the Swiss Jura, was found to be associated with the WHG lineage. He was a bearer of Y-DNA haplogroup I2a and mtDNA haplogroup U5b1h.
Behavior and culture
The flint tools found in association with the remains at Cro-Magnon have associations with the Aurignacian culture that Lartet had identified a few years before he found the first skeletons. The Aurignacian differ from the earlier cultures in their finely worked bone or antler points and flint points made for hafting, in the production of Venus figurines and in cave painting. They pierced bones, shells and teeth to make body ornaments. The figurines, cave-paintings, ornaments and the mysterious Venus figurines are a hallmark of Cro-Magnon culture, contrasting with the utilitarian culture of the Neanderthals.Apart from the mammoth bone huts mentioned, they constructed shelters of rocks, clay, branches, and animal hide/fur. Manganese and iron oxides were used in rock paintings.
Hunting
Like most early humans, the Cro-Magnons were primarily big-game hunters, killing mammoth, cave bears, horses, and reindeer. They hunted with spears, javelins, and spear-throwers. They would have been nomadic or semi-nomadic, following the annual migrations of their prey, and would also have eaten plant materials. In the village of Mezhirich in Ukraine, excavations have unearthed several huts built from mammoth bones.At some point in time, EEMH domesticated the dog, probably as a result of a symbiotic hunting relationship. DNA evidence suggests that present-day dogs split from wolves around the beginning of the LGM. However, potential Palaeolithic dogs have been found preceding this—namely the 36,000 year old Goyet dog from Belgium and the 33,000 year old Altai dog from Siberia—which could indicate there were multiple attempts at domesticating European wolves. The 14,500 year old Bonn-Oberkassel dog from Germany was found buried alongside a 40 year old man and a 25 year old woman, as well as traces of red hematite, and is genetically placed as an ancestor to present-day dogs. It was diagnosed with canine distemper virus and probably died between 19–23 weeks of age. It would have required extensive human care to survive without being able to contribute to anything, suggesting that, at this point, humans and dogs were connected by emotional or symbolic ties rather than purely materialistic personal gain.
Venus figurines
s are commonly found associated with EEMH and are the earliest well-acknowledged representation of human figures. These are most commonly found in the Gravettian most commonly from 29 to 23 thousand years ago. Almost all Venuses depict naked women, and are generally hand-held sized, and feature a downturned head, no face, thin arms which end at or cross over the breasts, voluminous breasts and buttocks, a prominent abdomen interpreted as pregnancy, tiny and bent legs, and pegged or unnaturally short feet. Venuses vary in proportions, and it is debated if this is due to material choice or if they were intentional design choices. It is suggested that Eastern Europeans Venuses have an emphasis on the breasts and stomach, whereas Western European ones emphasise the hips and thighs. Depictions of males are rare and contested in the Gravettian, the only reliable one being a fragmented ivory figurine from the grave of a Pavlovian site in Brno, Czech Republic. In contrast, 2-D Magdalenian engravings from 15 to 11 thousand years ago often depict males, indicated by an erect penis and facial hair, though profiles of women with an exaggerated buttock are much more common.The earliest interpretations of the Venuses believed these were literal representations of women with obesity or steatopygia ; or that EEMH believed depictions of things had magical properties over the subject, and that such a depiction of a pregnant woman would facilitate fertility and fecundity. In 1938, French historian Luce Passemard observed that steatopygia is rarely depicted, and enlarged breasts and buttocks were likely symbolic. This led to hypotheses that ideal womanhood for EEMH involved obesity, or that the Venuses were used by men as erotica due to the exaggeration of body parts typically sexualised in Western Culture and the lack of detail to individualising traits such as the face and limbs. However, extending present-day Western norms to EEMH is contested. In the late 20th century, American archaeologist Alexander Marshack suggested that they represent the sex role of women in EEMH society as well as female physical processes such as puberty, menstruation, sexual intercourse, pregnancy, giving birth, and lactation. Somewhat similar female iconography is found in Neolithic settlements representing mother goddesses, but it is unclear if this can be extended to Palaeolithic Venuses.
Textiles
The Dolní Věstonice I and III and Pavlov I sites in Moravia, Czech Republic, yielded many clay fragments with textile impressions. These indicate a highly sophisticated and standardised textile industry, including the production of: single-ply, double-ply, triple-ply, and braided string and cordage; knotted nets; wicker baskets; and woven cloth including simple and diagonal twined cloth, plain woven cloth, and twilled cloth. Some cloths appear to have a design pattern. There are also plaited items which may have been baskets or mats. Due to the wide range of textile gauges and weaves, it is possible they could also produce wall hangings, blankets, bags, shawls, shirts, skirts, and sashes. These people used plant rather than animal fibres, probably nettle. Such plant fibre fragments have also been recorded in France, Germany, and Eastern Europe during and following the Gravettian, indicating the technology was widespread and well in use. The inhabitants of Dzudzuana Cave, Georgia, appear to have been staining flax fibres with plant-based dyes, including yellow, red, pink, blue, turquoise, violet, black, brown, gray, green, and khaki. The emergence of textiles in the European archaeological record also coincides with the proliferation of the sewing needle in European sites. Ivory needles are found in most late Upper Palaeolithic sites, which could correlate to frequent sewing, and the predominance of small needles could indicate work on softer woven fabrics or accessory stitching and embroidery of leather products.There is some potential evidence of simple loom technology. However, these have also been interpreted as either hunting implements or art pieces. A bone rod from Předmostí, Czech Republic, may have been a net spacer or a spearhead. Rounded objects made of mammoth phalanges from Předmostí and Avdeevo, Russia, may have been loom weights or human figures. Perforated, washer-like ivory or bone discs from Sungir, Russia, and Mezhyrich, Ukraine, were potentially spindle whorls. A foot-shaped piece of ivory from Kniegrotte, Germany, was possibly a comb or a decorative pendant.
Some Venuses depict hairdos and clothing worn by Gravettian women. The Venus of Willendorf seems to be wearing a cap, possibly woven fabric or made from shells, featuring at least seven rows and an additional two half-rows covering the nape of the neck. It may have been made starting at a knotted centre and spiraling downward from right to left, and then backstitching all the rows to each other. The Kostenki-1 Venus seems to be wearing a similar cap, though each row seems to overlap the other. The Venus of Brassempouy seems to be wearing some nondescript open, twined hair cover. The engraved Venus of Laussel from France seems to be wearing some headwear with rectangular gridding, and could potentially represent a snood. Most East European Venuses with headwear also display notching and checkwork on the upper body which are suggestive of bandeaux with some even featuring straps connecting it to around the neck; these seem to be absent in Western European Venuses. Some also wear belts: in Eastern Europe, these are seen on the waist; whereas in Central and Western Europe they are worn on the low hip. The Venus of Lespugue seems to be wearing a plant fibre string skirt comprising 11 cords running behind the legs.
Assemblages and fossils
| Site | Region | Industry | Age | Description |
| Grotta del Cavallo | Italy | Uluzzian | 44 | In November 2011, tests conducted at the Oxford Radiocarbon Accelerator Unit in England on what were previously thought to be Neanderthal baby teeth, which had been unearthed in 1964 from the Grotta del Cavallo in Italy. These were identified as the oldest anatomically modern remains ever discovered in Europe, dating from between 43,000 and 45,000 years ago. No tools were associated with the find. |
| Geissenklösterle | Central Europe | Proto-Aurignacian | 42 | The bone flute of Geissenklösterle has been radiocarbon dated to 43–42 ka. The so-called adorant from the Geißenklösterle cave is somewhat younger. Other paleolithic art of the early Aurignacian was found in the Swabian Alb area, including Venus of Hohle Fels and the Lion-man figurine No dated human remains are associated with these finds. |
| Kostenki-14 | Eastern Europe | Proto-Aurignacian | 38 | A male from Kostenki-14, dated 35–40 ka, was found to have close ancestry with both "Mal'ta boy" of central Siberia and to the later Mesolithic hunter-gatherers of Europe and western Siberia, as well as with a basal population ancestral to Early European Farmers. |
| Peștera cu Oase | Southeastern Europe | Proto-Aurignacian | 38 | Peștera cu Oase near the Iron Gates in Romania appears to be a cave bear den; the human remains may have been prey or carrion. No tools are associated with the finds. Oase 1 holotype is a robust mandible which combines a variety of archaic, derived early modern, and possibly Neanderthal features. The modern attributes place it close to EEMH among Late Pleistocene samples. The fossil is one of the few finds in Europe which could be directly dated and is at least 37,800 years old. Oase 2, discovered in 2005, is the skull of a young male, again with mosaic features, some of which are paralleled in the Oase 1 mandible. |
| Kents Cavern | Western Europe | Proto-Aurignacian | 36 | The Kents Cavern find is a prehistoric maxilla fragment was uncovered in the cavern during a 1927 excavation in Kents Cavern by the Torquay Natural History Society, and named Kents Cavern 4. In 1989 the fossil was radiocarbon dated to be from 36,400–34,700 years ago, although various fauna fossils in older strata present on the site have been dated in 2011 to 44,200–41,500 years ago and indirectly associated with the human remains, the latest datings and conclusions in question being highly disputed. |
| Sungir | Eastern Europe | Aurignacian | 34 | DNA analysis at BP. Additional pollen finds suggest the relative warm spell of the "Greenland interstadial 5". mtDNA analysis shows that the four individuals tested from Sungir belong to mtDNA haplogroup U. The individual from Burial 1 belongs to mtDNA haplogroup U8c, while the three individuals from Burial 2 belong to mtDNA haplogroup U2. Y-DNA analysis shows that all four of the tested individuals from Sungir belong to Y-DNA haplogroup C1a2. |
| Kostenki-12 | Eastern Europe | Aurignacian | 33 | Dated at 32,600 ± 1,100 radio-carbon years, the find from Kostenki consists of a tibia and a fibula in a rich culture layer. The occupation layers contain bone and ivory artifacts, including possible figurative art, and fossil shells imported more than 500 kilometers. |
| Gower | Western Europe | Aurignacian | 33 | Despite its name, the Red Lady of Paviland is a partial skeleton of a young male, lacking a skull. It was discovered in 1823 in a cave burial in Gower, South Wales, United Kingdom. The bones were stained with ochre, and it was the first human fossil to have been found anywhere in the world. At 33,000 years old, it is still the oldest ceremonial burial of a modern human ever discovered anywhere in Western Europe. Associated finds were red ochre anointing, a mammoth skull, and personal decorations suggesting shamanism or other religious practice. Grave goods are considered late Aurignacian or Early Gravettian in appearance. Genetic analysis of mtDNA yielded the haplogroup H, the most common group in Europe. |
| La Quina Aval | Western Europe | Aurignacian | 33 | Consisting of a partial juvenile mandible, the find is also associated with early Aurignacian tools. The jaw has some archaic features, though it is mainly modern. The find is dated to max 33,000–32,000 radiocarbon years. |
| Les Roisà Mouthiers | Western Europe | Aurignacian | 32 | There are diagnostic modern human remains associated with a later Aurignacian assemblage at Les Roisà Mouthiers, France. The date is likely not older than 32,000 radiocarbon years. |
| Mladeč caves | Central Europe | Aurignacian | 31 | The Mladeč caves in Moravia have yielded the remains of several individuals, but few artifacts. The artifacts found have tentatively been classified as Aurignacian. The finds have been radiocarbon dated to around 31,000 radiocarbon years, Mladeč 2 is dated to 31,320 +410, -390, Mladeč 9a to 31,500 +420, -400 and Mladeč 8 to 30,680 +380, -360 14C years. |
| Peștera Muierilor | Southeastern Europe | Aurignacian | 31 | The Peștera Muierilor find is a single, fairly complete cranium of a woman with rugged facial traits and otherwise modern skull features, found in a lower gallery of the cave, among numerous cave bear remains. Radiocarbon dating yielded an age of 30,150 ± 800 years. No associated tools were found. |
| Muierii and Cioclovina Caves | Southeastern Europe | Aurignacian | 30 | Cioclovina 1 is a complete neurocranium from a robust individual lacking all facial bones. The find is from a cave bear den, Cioclovina Cave, Romania. It is dated at 29,000 ± 700 radiocarbon years. |
| Cro-Magnon | Western Europe | Aurignacian | 29 | Compared to Neanderthals, the skeletons showed the same high forehead, upright posture and slender skeleton as modern humans. The other specimens from the site are a female, Cro-Magnon 2, and another male, Cro-Magnon 3. The condition and placement of the remains of Cro-Magnon 1, along with pieces of shell and animal teeth in what appear to have been pendants or necklaces, raises the question of whether they were buried intentionally. If Cro-Magnons buried their dead intentionally, it suggests they had a knowledge of ritual, by burying their dead with necklaces and tools, or an idea of disease and that the bodies needed to be contained. Analysis of the pathology of the skeletons shows that the humans of this period led a physically difficult life. In addition to infection, several of the individuals found at the shelter had fused vertebrae in their necks, indicating traumatic injury; the adult female found at the shelter had survived for some time with a skull fracture. As these injuries would be life-threatening even today, this suggests that Cro-Magnons relied on community support and took care of each other's injuries. The Abri of Cro-Magnon is part of the UNESCO World Heritage Site of the "Prehistoric Sites and Decorated Caves of the Vézère Valley". |
| Předmostí | Central Europe | Aurignacian-Gravettian | 26 | The Předmostí site, near Přerov, Moravia, was discovered in the late 19th century. Excavations were conducted between 1884 and 1930. As the original material was lost during World War II, in the 1990s, new excavations were conducted. The Předmostí site appears to have been a living area with associated burial ground with some 20 burials, including 15 complete human interments, and portions of five others, representing either disturbed or secondary burials. Cannibalism has been suggested to explain the apparent subsequent disturbance, though it is not widely accepted. The non-human fossils are mostly mammoth. Many of the bones are heavily charred, indicating they were cooked. Other remains include fox, reindeer, ice-age horse, wolf, bear, wolverine, and hare. Remains of three dogs were also found, one of which had a mammoth bone in its mouth. The Předmostí site is dated to between 24,000 and 27,000 years old. The people were essentially similar to the French Cro-Magnon finds. Though undoubtedly modern, they had robust features indicative of a big-game hunter lifestyle. They also share square eye socket openings found in the French material. |
| Balzi Rossi | Italy | Aurignacian-Gravettian | 25 | Grimaldi Man is a find from the Ligurian Coast in Italy. The caves yielded several finds, among them two fairly complete skeletons in the lower Aurignacian layer. Though the age and accompanying tools suggests Cro-Magnon, the skeletons differ physically from the large and robust Cro-Magnons, being slender and rather short. The remains from one of the caves, the "Barma Grande", have in recent times been radiocarbon dated to 25 ka. The Venus figurines of Balzi Rossi have been dated to the later Gravettian or Epi-Gravettian, 24 to 19 ka. |
| Abrigo do Lagar Velho | Western Europe | Gravettian | 24 | The Lapedo child from Abrigo do Lagar Velho, Portugal, about 24,000 years old, a fairly complete and quite robust skeleton, possibly showing some Neanderthal traits. |
| Abri Pataud | Western Europe | Solutrean | 21 | The Abri Pataud shelter shows human habitation throughout the Aurignacian to Solutrean, but was abandoned in the early Magdalenian, about 17 ka. "Pataud woman" is the name given to the remains of a young woman, about 20 years old, deposited with the body of a newborn child, and is about 21,000 years old. The woman's skull was buried separately, about four meters from the body, lying protected between stones. |
| Chancelade | Western Europe | Magdalenian | 15 | Chancelade man, a short and stocky older man buried in Chancelade, France, was found with Magdalenian tools. Several other more fragmentary finds, like the skeleton from Laugerie-Basse and the Duruthy cave near Sorde-l'Abbaye, have traditionally been linked to the Chancelade man. The morphological difference in the Chancelade skull compared to the "stockier" Cro-Magnon type has been taken as evidence for a Gravettian or Magdalenian-era influx of a different population unrelated to the Aurignacian EEMH. |
| Cap Blanc rock shelter | Western Europe | Magdalenian-Azilian | 14 | Magdalenian Girl is a female skeleton, discovered in Dordogne in 1911. Dating to the later Magdalenian, transitional to the beginning Mesolithic. |
| Grotte du Bichon | Western Europe | Magdalenian-Azilian | 14 | Bichon man is the skeleton of a young male of the mesolithic hunter-gatherer lineage. |
| Ripari Villabruna | Italy | Magdalenian-Azilian | 14 | Villabruna 1 is a skeleton, dated 14.1–13.8 ka, buried in a shallow pit, the head turned to the left with arms stretched touching the body, with grave goods typical of hunter-gatherer equipment. Villabruna 1 is the oldest bearer of Y-haplogroup R1b found in Europe, and has been taken as a representative of the beginning post-LGM migration movement from the Near East. |