Ice rules


In chemistry, ice rules are basic principles that govern arrangement of atoms in water ice. They are also known as Bernal–Fowler rules, after British physicists John Desmond Bernal and Ralph H. Fowler who first described them in 1933.
The rules state each oxygen is covalently bonded to two hydrogen atoms, and that the oxygen atom in each water molecule forms two hydrogen bonds with other oxygens, so that there is precisely one hydrogen between each pair of oxygen atoms.
In other words, in ordinary Ih ice, every oxygen is bonded to the total of four hydrogens, two of these bonds are strong and two of them are much weaker. Every hydrogen is bonded to two oxygens, strongly to one and weakly to the other. The resulting configuration is geometrically a periodic lattice. The distribution of bonds on this lattice is represented by a directed-graph and can be either ordered or disordered. In 1935, Linus Pauling used the ice rules to calculate the residual entropy of ice Ih. For this reasons the rules are sometimes mis-attributed and referred to as "Pauling's ice rules".
A nice figure of the resulting structure can be found in Hamann.