Kumyks
Kumyks - the Turkic people, one of the indigenous peoples of today's Dagestan, Chechnyaa and North Ossetia, is the largest Turkic people in the North Caucasus.
They traditionally populate the Kumyk plateau, lands bordering the Caspian Sea, areas in North Ossetia, Chechnya and along the banks of the Terek river. They speak Kumyk language, which until 1930s had been the lingua-franca of the Northern Caucasus.
Territories where Kumyks have traditionally lived, and where their historical state entities used to exist, are called Kumykia. All of the lands populated by Kumyks once used to be a part of an independent regional power - the Kumyk state of Tarki Shamkhalate.
Population and present settlement area
Kumyks comprise 14% of the population of the Republic of Dagestan, the third-largest population of Chechnya, and the fifth-largest population of North Ossetia, all of which are parts of the Russian Federation.Kumyks is the second largest Turkic-speaking ethnic group after Azerbaijanis in the Causasus, the largest Turkic people of the North Caucasus and the third largest nation of Dagestan.
According to the Russian national census of 2010 there were more than 500,000 Kumyks in Russia.
Russian Federation
Turkey and the Middle East
In the 19th century, during and following the Caucasian War, numbers of Kumyks were subject to or willingly resettled to the Ottoman Empire.In the 1910s-1920s, during the Bolshevik Revolution, another emigration wave to Turkey took place. Among muhajirs of that period were prominent Kumyk nobility.Kumyks also used to move to Syria and Jordan, where a few Kumyk families still live. The Syrian village of Dar-Ful was established in 1878-1880 by Kumyk emigrants.
There is no any official state census of ethnical minorities in Turkey, but according to the studies of 1994—1996, there were more than 20 settlements with Kumyk population.
Ethnonym
The majority of researchers derive the name "Kumyk" from a Turkic ethnonym Kimak, or from another name for Kipchaks — Cuman.According to P. Uslar, in the 19th century the names "Kumyk" and "Kumuk" pertained to Turkic speaking population of the Northern Caucasian lowlands. In Dagestan, Chechnya and Ingushetia the name Kumyk or originally Kumuk pertained to the Kumyks only. Y. Fyodorov wrote, based on sources from the 8–19 cc., that "Gumik — Kumyk — Kumuk" is originally a Dagestanian toponym from the Middle Ages.
In various Russian, European, Ottoman and Persian sources Kumyks were also called Dagestan Tatars, Caucasus Tatars, Circassians. Although today "Circassians" often means Adyghe people, until early 19th century the name used to pertain to Caucasian Turkic peoples and Terek Tatars.
Origin
There is no univocal opinion regarding the origin of Kumyks. Some proposed that population of Kumyk plains of the 8th-10th centuries was directly ancestral to modern Kumyks. A view close to that is that Kumyks appeared in Dagestan along with Khazars in the 8th century and stayed afterwards. Some assume, that Kumyks appeared in Dagestan in the 12th-13th centuries along with Kipchaks.Kumyk verbal tradition carried through ages some proverbs and sayings coming from the times of Khazar Kaghanate.
S. Tokarev wrote that:
A modern interpretation was proposed that "from the Turkified Lezginians Kumyks also emerged".
However, the prominent professor of the Caucasus studies L. Lavrov doubted "Turkification" version of Kumyks:
Another prominent Russian Orientalist V. Minorsky proposed his adjustment to the views mentioned, stating that:
Final stages of the Kumyk ethnicity formation stretched over the period of XII–XVII centuries.
Some of Turkic peoples who blended into the Kumyk nation were those of Tumens from the Tumen Khanate, which emerged in the 15th century as a fragment of the dissolved Golden Horde; and those of Borogans, As people and pre-Cuman Turks, who populated Boragan-Madjar region, which in the 7th century encompassed vast North Caucasian plains.
History
Kumyks historically were related to the states of Caucasian Huns, Cuman-Kipchaks, Golden Horde.The starting nationhood point is often considered to be the times of Khazar Kaganate.
Starting from the Medieval times Kumyks formed a few feudal states. Until the 19th centuries AD the Kumyks had a feudal entity of strategical geographic and political importance for Russia, Persia and Ottomans, headed by a leader called Shamkhal — Shamkhalate, which is mentioned as early as in the 14th century by the Timurid historians.
Amongst the other feudal entities were such as Endirey Principality, Utamish Soltanate, Tumen Possession, Braguny Principality, Mekhtuly Khanate, Kaytag Uzminate and others.
Expansion of the Russian state, Ottoman Empire and Persia
In the 16th century Kumyk rulers tried to balance their relationships with the three neighbouring states, the Shamkhalate established itself as a considerable regional power. The two Empires and yet-to-be one Russian state considered the Caspian area as their influence domain.Shamkhal Chopan became a subject of the Ottoman Empire in the late 16th century, and participated in the 1578-1590th Ottoman-Persian war.
1560s are marked as the start of the numerous campaigns of the Russian troops against Kumyks, provoked by the requests of Georgians and Kabardians. Commander Cheremisinov seized and plundered the capital of Tarki in 1560. Tumen khanate in the alliance with the Shamkhalate also resisted the invasion but in 1588 ceased its existence; at the location of its capital Russians established the Terki stronghold. Tumen ruler Soltaney fled to the pan-Caucasian hero Sultan-Mahmud of Endirey. In 1594 the other Campaign of Khvorostinin in Dagestan was organised, during which Russian forces and Terek Cossacks seized Tarki again, but were blocked by the Kumyk forces and forced to retreat to Terki, which resulted in a stampede.
In 1604—1605 one more Campaign of Buturlin in Dagestan was conducted, famously known as the Shevkal Campaign. This one is also failed and resulted in a significant loss for Russians on the field of Karaman, known as The Battle of Karaman. The joined forces of the Dagestanian peoples under the banners of the Kumyk Shamkhalian prince Soltan-Mahmud of Endirey prevailed, and according to the prominent Russian historian Karamzin stopped Russian expansion for the next 118 years until the rule of Peter I.
In 1649 and 1650 Nogai leader Choban-murza nomadised away to the allied Shamkhalate. Russian sovereigns pursuing Nogais sent 8,000 men in order to force Nogais to return. Surkhay-Shawkhal III attacked and routed Russian troops in The Battle of Germenchik. Developing success, in 1651 and 1653 Kumyks, this time in alliance with Safavid forces, destroid Russian fortress at the river Sunzha. Iranian Shah Abbas II though intended to strengthen Persian foot on the Kumyk lands, which didn't match with Surkhay's plans. In alliance with Kaytag Uzmi Rustem, Surkhay III confronts Persians but concedes. Nevertheless, high losses disrupted Shah's intentions of building fortresses in the Kumyk lands.
Resistance to Peter I.
In the XVIII century Russian Emperor Peter I organised Persian Campaign of the 1722—1723. Endirey principality was the first to oppose the Russian forces, and despite the defeat, caused losses which shocked the Emperor. Kumyks of the Utamish Soltanate feudal entity, also according to the Peter's officers, fiercely resisted at The Battle at the River Inchge. Peter I stated afterwards:Tarki Shamkhalate initially took a pro-Russian stance, but after a new Russian fortress had been built they confronted Russia again. However, this time Shamkhals couldn't unite the neighboring local peoples and remained alone in the struggle. Russian historian Sergey Solovyov wrote:
Caucasian War
Russian 19th century general :ru:Филипсон, Григорий Иванович|Gregory Phillipson, known for his important actions in subjugating Adyghe and Abaza ethnic groups at the left flank of the Caucasian front in Circassia, wrote:Kumyks were one of the major forces in the late 18th century Sheikh Mansur's insurgence. Kumyk prince Chepalow in alliance with Mansur attacked a few times the Russian stronghold of Kizlyar. In the decisive battle Mansur led the Kumyk forces himself. Despite the formal acceptance of the Russian sovereignty over the Shamkhals at the beginning of the Caucasian war, there were numerous revolts in Kumykia. In 1825 the village of Aksay was destroyed and 300 men from the settlement were gathered for their participation in the insurgence against Russian Empire led by the Chechen leader Taymiyev Biybolat, and murdered when one of the Kumyks Ochar-Haji killed two Russian generals at the spot. In the same year the people of Endirey called the peoples of mountaineer communities to the mutual resistance.
In total, there were at least five revolts in Shamkhalate and on the Kumyk plateau : anti-Russian revolt, resulting in the defeat of Northern Kumyks and then-disestablished Mekhtula Khanate, Shamkhalate Revolt of the 1823, participation in Beybulat Taymiyev's revolt, Shamkhalate Revolt of the 1831, the revolt at the Kumyk plains in the 1831 and one more Shamkhalate Revolt of the 1843.
There were also preparations for the insurgence on the Kumyk plains in 1844 and for the general Kumyk insurgence in 1855, which had been planned as a joined actions with the advance of imam Shamil, but the advance didn't progress enough to the Kumyk lands, In the insurgence in Dagestan in 1877-1878 one of the major centres was the village of Bashly.
Despite the devastation brought by imperial army for the attempts to rise against Russia, Kumyk plains were also exposed to plundering forays from the neighboring tribes. As an instance, one of Chechen leaders Avko in 1830 gathered forces in a call to allegedly join troops of the leader of the Caucasian resistance Gazi-Muhammad, but at the last moment declared the true reason "to use the opportunity to attack the city of Endirey and plunder Kumyks' cattle", but the troops disbanded in disappointment. Gazi-Muhammad himself tried to make Kumyks resettle higher in the mountains from the plains and join his resistance by destroying Kumyk settlements, as it's stated in the Russian military archives:
During the Caucasian War Kumyks found themselves between the devil and the deep sea, not always supported by the insurgents on one hand, and being a target of retaliation from Russians on the other. Same archives say:
Kumyks during the War gave the Caucasus many common heroes. Imam of Dagestan and Chechnya Shamil was of the Kumyk descent, as well as his companion and the second pretender to the Imam's position Tashaw-Hadji. Besides, Kumyks were the leaders of the earlier Dagestanian revolts such as Soltan Ahmed-Khan of Avars, and Umalat-bek of Boynak, companion of the imam Gazi-Muhammad Razibek of Kazanish, trusted companion of the Imam Shamil — Idris of Endirey.
Dissolution of Shamkhalate and the Kumyk okrug (district)
With the Caucasian War ended, on the 30th of December 1869, the Kumyk district of the Terek oblast was dissolved and renamed as Khasavyurt okrug. In the end of 1870th the entire southern part of the Khasavyurt district, from Gerzel-aul to Endirey, was populated by Chechens by the Russian decrees. Since 1870 until 1877 the number of Chechens in native Kumyk area increased from 5,912 to 14,000 and continued to grow to 18,128 in 1897.According to The Brockhaus and Efron Encyclopedic Dictionary, issued at the turn of XIX - XX centuries, there were 32,087 thousand Kumyks in Dagestan. And according to the 1891 data, 108,800 Kumyks lived in the Dagestan and Terek oblasts of the Russian Empire.
A little earlier, in 1867 the Tarki Shamkhalate was abolished by the Russian authorities, which might be considered as the end of the Kumyk statehood.
[Russian Revolution], Soviet and Modern times
During the times of the establishment of Soviets Kumyk political elite was an active part in the creation of the Mountainous Republic of the Northern Caucasus. Haydar Bammate was the Minister of Foreign Affairs and one of the ideologists of the state, Prince Rashitkhan Kaplan was the Minister of Internal Affairs, one of the major military leaders was prince Nuh-bek Tarkovskiy, Zubair Temirhanov was the speaker of the Alliance Council of the Republic.In 1926 the Soviet Population Census stated that there were 94 549 Kumyks in the Russian empire, indicating demographic crisis, compared to the 1891 data.
Due to the continuous resettlement policies by the Russian Empire, then the Soviet government, continuing today in the modern Republic of Dagestan of the Russian Federation, during the XIX-XXI centuries the native territories of Kumyks have been dramatically reduced, Kumyks became a minority on their own lands.
Deportation
By the decree of Stalin's government on the 12 of April 1944 Kumyk population of historical Kumyk capital Tarki and adjacent villages was deported to the lands of entirely deported to the Middle Asia Chechens. The reason was stated as "freeing the area for the agricultural needs" of the resettling there mountaineer peoples. The deportation, despite the Russian laws is still not acknowledged by the Russian government. As a result of this event, local population lost for years their ancient capital of Tarki, which led to the permanent destruction of the most of the cultural inheritance.Anthropology
Anthropologically Kumyks represent Caucasian racial group, its Caspian subgroup.Language
Kumyks speak Kumyk language, which is a part of Kipchak-Cuman subfamily of the Kipchak family of the Turkic languages. It's an inheritant of the Khazar languages and in addition contains Bulghar and Oghuz substratum.Nikolay Baskakov, basing on a famous 12th century scripture named Codex Cimanicus, included modern Kumyk, Karachai-Balkar, Crimean Tatar, Karaim, and the language of Mamluk Kipchaks in lingual family of the Cuman-Kipchak language. Samoylovich also considered Cuman-Kipchak close to Kumyk and Karachai-Balkar.
Kumyk had been a lingua-franca of the bigger part of the Northern Caucasus, from Dagestan to Kabarda, until the 1930s.
In 1848, a professor of the "Caucasian Tatar" Timofey Makarov published the first ever grammatical book in Russian language for one of the Northern Caucasian languages - which was international Kumyk. Makarov wrote:
Kumyk was an official language of communication between North-Eastern Caucasian nations and Russian administration.
Amongst the dialects of the Kumyk there are Kaitag, Terek, Buynaksk and Xasavyurt, the latter two became basis for the literary language.
Kumyk is the oldest script literary language of Dagestan and Caucasus. During the 20th century the writing system of the language was changed twice: during Soviet times in 1929 traditional Arabic script was substituted by the Latin script, and then in 1938 — by Cyrillic script.
The closest to the Kumyk are Karachai-Balkar, Crimean Tatar, and Karaim languages.
More than 90% of the Kumyks, according to 2010 census, also speak Russian, and those in Turkey and the Levant speak Turkish and Arabic.
In Russian and European classical literature
Kumyk language was a subject of studies for such Russian classical authors as Leo Tolstoy and Mikhail Lermontov, both of whom served in the Caucasus. The language is present in such works of Tolstoy as "The Raid", Cossacks, Hadji Murat, and Lermontov's - "A Hero of Our Time", Bestuzhev-Marlinsky's - "Molla-nur" and "Ammalat-bek".German poet Fleming, travelling together with Holstein embassy through Kumyk lands in 1633 and 1636, had dedicated to Kumykia and its towns a few verses.