List of Roman emperors
The Roman emperors were the rulers of the Roman Empire dating from the granting of the title of Augustus to Gaius Julius Caesar Octavianus by the Roman Senate in 27 BC, after major roles played by the populist dictator and military leader Julius Caesar. Augustus maintained a facade of Republican rule, rejecting monarchical titles but calling himself princeps senatus and princeps civitatis. The title of Augustus was conferred on his successors to the imperial position. The style of government instituted by Augustus is called the Principate and continued until reforms by Diocletian. The modern word 'emperor' derives from the title imperator, which was granted by an army to a successful general; during the initial phase of the empire, the title was generally used only by the princeps. For example, Augustus' official name was Imperator Caesar Divi Filius Augustus.
The territory under command of the emperor had developed under the period of the Roman Republic as it invaded and occupied most of Europe and portions of northern Africa and western Asia. Under the republic, regions of the empire were ruled by provincial governors answerable to and authorised by the Senate and People of Rome. During the republic, the chief magistrates of Rome were two consuls elected each year; consuls continued to be elected in the imperial period, but their authority was subservient to that of the emperor, and the election was controlled by the emperor.
In the late 3rd century, after the Crisis of the Third Century, Diocletian formalised and embellished the recent manner of imperial rule, establishing the so-called Dominate period of the Roman Empire. This was characterised by the explicit increase of authority in the person of the Emperor, and the use of the style Dominus Noster. The rise of powerful Barbarian tribes along the borders of the empire and the challenge they posed to defense of far-flung borders and unstable imperial succession led Diocletian to divide the administration geographically of the Empire in 286 with a co-Augustus.
In 313, Constantine the Great, the first Christian emperor, issued the Edict of Milan along with Licinius that granted freedom in the worship of Christianity. In 330, he established a second capital in Byzantium, which he renamed Constantinople. For most of the period from 286 to 480, there was more than one recognised senior emperor, with the division usually based in geographic terms. This division was consistently in place after the death of Theodosius I in 395, which historians have dated as the division between the Western Roman Empire and the Eastern Roman Empire. However, formally the Empire remained a single polity, with separate co-emperors in the separate courts. The fall of the Western Roman Empire, and so the end of a separate list of emperors below, is dated either from the de facto date of 476 when Romulus Augustulus was deposed by the Germanic Herulians led by Odoacer or the de jure date of 480, on the death of Julius Nepos, when Eastern Emperor Zeno ended recognition of a separate Western court. In the period that followed, the Empire is usually treated by historians as the Byzantine Empire governed by the Byzantine Emperors, although this designation is not used universally, and continues to be a subject of specialist debate today.
In the 7th century reign of Heraclius, the Byzantine–Sasanian War of 602–628 saw much of Rome's eastern territory lost to the Sasanian Empire, recovered by Heraclius, and then lost permanently to Arab Muslim conquests after the death of Muhammad and establishment of Islam. The Sasanian Empire was conquered by the Rashidun Caliphate, ending the Byzantine-Sasanian Wars.
The line of emperors continued until the death of Constantine XI Palaiologos during the Fall of Constantinople in 1453, when the remaining territories were captured by the Ottoman Empire under Mehmed II. The Ottoman dynasty carried on using the title of Caesar of Rome.
Counting all individuals to have possessed the full imperial title, including those who did not technically rule in their own right, this list contains 194 emperors and 3 ruling empresses, for a total of 197 monarchs.
Legitimacy
The emperors listed in this article are those generally agreed to have been 'legitimate' emperors, and who appear in published regnal lists. The word 'legitimate' is used by most authors, but usually without clear definition, perhaps not surprisingly, since the emperorship was itself rather vaguely defined legally. In Augustus' original formulation, the princeps was selected by either the Senate or "the people" of Rome, but quite quickly the legions became an acknowledged stand-in for "the people." A person could be proclaimed as emperor by their troops or by "the mob" in the street, but in theory needed to be confirmed by the Senate. The coercion that frequently resulted was implied in this formulation. Furthermore, a sitting emperor was empowered to name a successor and take him on as apprentice in government and in that case the Senate had no role to play, although it sometimes did when a successor lacked the power to inhibit bids by rival claimants. By the medieval period, the very definition of the Senate became vague as well, adding to the complication.Lists of legitimate emperors are therefore partly influenced by the subjective views of those compiling them, and also partly by historical convention. Many of the 'legitimate' emperors listed here acceded to the position by usurpation, and many 'illegitimate' claimants had a legitimate claim to the position. Historically, the following criteria have been used to derive emperor lists:
- Any individual who undisputedly ruled the whole Empire, at some point, is a 'legitimate emperor'.
- Any individual who was nominated as heir or co-emperor by a legitimate emperor, and who succeeded to rule in his own right, is a legitimate emperor.
- Where there were multiple claimants, and none were legitimate heirs, the claimant accepted by the Roman Senate as emperor is the legitimate emperor, at least during the Principate.
Emperors after 395
After 395, the list of emperors in the East is based on the same general criteria, with the exception that the emperor only had to be in undisputed control of the Eastern part of the empire, or be the legitimate heir of the Eastern emperor.The situation in the West is more complex. Throughout the final years of the Western Empire the Eastern emperor was considered the senior emperor, and a Western emperor was only legitimate if recognized as such by the Eastern emperor. Furthermore, after 455 the Western emperor ceased to be a relevant figure and there was sometimes no claimant at all. For the sake of historical completeness, all Western Emperors after 455 are included in this list, even if they were not recognized by the Eastern Empire; some of these technically illegitimate emperors are included in regnal lists, while others are not. For instance, Romulus Augustulus was technically a usurper who ruled only the Italian peninsula and was never legally recognized. However, he was traditionally considered the "last Roman Emperor" by 18th and 19th century western scholars and his overthrow by Odoacer used as the marking point between historical epochs, and as such he is usually included in regnal lists. However, modern scholarship has confirmed that Romulus Augustulus' predecessor, Julius Nepos continued to rule as emperor in the other Western holdings and as a figurehead for Odoacer's rule in Italy until Nepos' death in 480. Since the question of what constitutes an emperor can be ambiguous, and dating the "fall of the Western Empire" arbitrary, this list includes details of both figures.
The Principate
27 BC–68 AD: Julio-Claudian dynasty
| Portrait | Name | Birth | Succession | Reign | Time in office | Death |
| Augustus IMPERATOR CAESAR DIVI FILIVS AVGVSTVS | 23 September 63 BC, Rome, Italia | Great-nephew and adopted son of Julius Caesar; became de facto emperor as a result of the 'first settlement' between himself and the Roman Senate. | 16 January 27 BC – 19 August 14 AD Sometimes taken to have begun his reign in October 43 BC. | 40 years, 7 months and 3 days | 19 August 14 AD Natural causes | |
| Tiberius TIBERIVS CAESAR DIVI AVGVSTI FILIVS AVGVSTVS | 16 November 42 BC, Rome, Italia | Natural son of Livia Drusilla, Augustus' third wife, by a previous marriage; stepbrother and third husband of Julia the Elder, daughter of Augustus; adopted by Augustus as his son and heir. | 18 September 14 AD – 16 March 37 AD | 22 years, 5 months and 27 days | 16 March 37 AD Probably natural causes, possibly assassinated by Caligula or praetorian prefect Naevius Sutorius Macro | |
| Caligula GAIVS IVLIVS CAESAR AVGVSTVS GERMANICVS | 31 August 12 AD, Antium, Italia | Great-nephew and adoptive grandson of Tiberius; natural son of Germanicus; great-grandson of Augustus. | 18 March 37 AD – 24 January 41 AD | 3 years, 10 months and 6 days | 24 January 41 AD Assassinated in a conspiracy involving senators and Praetorian Guards | |
| Claudius TIBERIVS CLAVDIVS CAESAR AVGVSTVS GERMANICVS | 1 August 10 BC, Lugdunum, Gallia Lugdunensis | Uncle of Caligula; brother of Germanicus; nephew of Tiberius; great-nephew and step-grandson of Augustus; proclaimed emperor by the Praetorian Guard. | 25/26 January 41 AD – 13 October 54 AD | 13 years, 8 months and 18/19 days | 13 October 54 AD Probably poisoned by his wife Agrippina the Younger, in favour of her son Nero, possibly natural causes | |
| Nero NERO CLAVDIVS CAESAR AVGVSTVS GERMANICVS | 15 December 37 AD, Antium, Italia | Great-nephew, stepson, son-in-law and adopted son of Claudius; nephew of Caligula; great-great-nephew of Tiberius; grandson of Germanicus; great-great-grandson of Augustus | 13 October 54 AD – 9 June 68 AD | 13 years, 7 months and 27 days | 9 June 68 AD Committed suicide after being declared a public enemy by the Senate |
68–96: Year of the Four Emperors and Flavian dynasty
| Portrait | Name | Birth | Succession | Reign | Time in office | Death |
| Galba SERVIVS GALBA IMPERATOR CAESAR AVGVSTVS | 24 December 3 BC, near Terracina, Italia | Seized power after Nero's suicide, with support of the Praetorian Guard | 8 June 68 AD – 15 January 69 AD | 7 months and 7 days | 15 January 69 AD Murdered by Praetorian Guard in coup led by Otho | |
| Otho IMPERATOR MARCVS OTHO CAESAR AVGVSTVS | 28 April 32 AD, Ferentinum, Italia | Appointed by Praetorian Guard | 15 January 69 AD – 16 April 69 AD | 3 months and 1 day | 16 April 69 AD Committed suicide after losing Battle of Bedriacum to Vitellius | |
| Vitellius AVLVS VITELLIVS GERMANICVS IMPERATOR AVGVSTVS | 24 September 15 AD, Rome, Italia | Seized power with support of German Legions | 17 April 69 AD – 20 December 69 AD | 8 months and 3 days | 20 December 69 AD Murdered by Vespasian's troops | |
| Vespasian IMPERATOR CAESAR VESPASIANVS AVGVSTVS | 17 November 9 AD, Falacrine, Italia | Seized power with the support of the eastern Legions | 21 December 69 AD – 24 June 79 AD | 9 years, 6 months and 3 days | 24 June 79 AD Natural causes | |
| Titus IMPERATOR TITVS CAESAR VESPASIANVS AVGVSTVS | 30 December 39 AD, Rome, Italia | Son of Vespasian | 24 June 79 AD – 13 September 81 AD | 2 years, 2 months and 20 days | 13 September 81 AD Natural causes | |
| Domitian IMPERATOR CAESAR DOMITIANVS AVGVSTVS GERMANICVS | 24 October 51 AD, Rome, Italia | Brother of Titus; son of Vespasian | 14 September 81 AD – 18 September 96 AD | 15 years and 4 days | 18 September 96 AD Assassinated by court officials |
96–192: Nerva–Antonine dynasty
Note: all dates AD hereafter.| Portrait | Name | Birth | Succession | Reign | Time in office | Death |
| Nerva IMPERATOR NERVA CAESAR AVGVSTVS | 8 November 30, Narni, Italia | Appointed by the Senate. First of the "Five Good Emperors". | 18 September 96 – 27 January 98 | 1 year, 4 months and 9 days | 27 January 98 Natural causes | |
| Trajan IMPERATOR CAESAR NERVA TRAIANVS AVGVSTVS | 18 September 53, Italica, Hispania Baetica | Adopted son and heir of Nerva. His reign marked the geographical peak of the empire | 28 January 98 – 7 August 117 | 19 years, 6 months and 10 days | 7 August 117 Natural causes | |
| Hadrian IMPERATOR CAESAR TRAIANVS HADRIANVS AVGVSTVS | 24 January 76, Italica, Hispania Baetica | Adopted son and heir of Trajan | 11 August 117 – 10 July 138 | 20 years, 10 months and 30 days | 10 July 138 Natural causes | |
| Antoninus Pius IMPERATOR CAESAR TITVS AELIVS HADRIANVS ANTONINVS AVGVSTVS PIVS | 19 September 86, Near Lanuvium, Italia | Adopted son and heir of Hadrian | 10 July 138 – 7 March 161 | 22 years, 6 months and 28 days | 7 March 161 Natural causes | |
| Lucius Verus IMPERATOR CAESAR LVCIVS AVRELIVS VERVS AVGVSTVS | 15 December 130, Rome | Adopted son and heir of Antoninus Pius and son-in-law of Marcus Aurelius; Co-emperor with Marcus Aurelius until his death | 7 March 161 – ? March 169 | 8 years | March 169 Natural causes | |
| Marcus Aurelius IMPERATOR CAESAR MARCVS AVRELIVS ANTONINVS AVGVSTVS | 26 April 121, Rome | Adopted son, son-in-law and heir of Antoninus Pius; Co-emperor with Lucius Verus until 169. Last of the "Five Good Emperors" | 7 March 161 – 17 March 180 | 19 years and 10 days | March 17, 180 Natural causes | |
| Commodus IMPERATOR CAESAR LUCIVS AELIVS AVRELIVS COMMODVS AVGVSTVS | 31 August 161, Lanuvium, Italia | Natural son of Marcus Aurelius; joint emperor from 177 | 17 March 180 – 31 December 192 | 3 years as joint emperor, 12 years as sole emperor | 31 December 192 Assassinated in palace, strangled in his bath |
193–235: Year of the Five Emperors and Severan dynasty
| Portrait | Name | Birth | Succession | Reign | Time in office | Death |
| Pertinax IMPERATOR CAESAR PVBLIVS HELVIVS PERTINAX AVGVSTVS | 1 August 126, Alba, Italy | Proclaimed emperor by Praetorian Guard | 1 January – 28 March 193 | 2 months and 27 days | 28 March 193 Murdered by Praetorian Guard | |
| Didius Julianus IMPERATOR CAESAR MARCVS DIDIVS SEVERVS IVLIANVS AVGVSTVS | 133 or 137, Milan, Italy | Won auction held by the Praetorian Guard for the position of emperor | 28 March – 1 June 193 | 2 months and 4 days | 1 June 193 Executed on orders of the Senate | |
| Septimius Severus IMPERATOR CAESAR LVCIVS SEPTIMIVS SEVERVS EVSEBES PERTINAX AVGVSTVS | 11 April 145, Leptis Magna, Libya | Seized power with support of Pannonian legions | 9 April 193 – 4 February 211 | 17 years, 9 months and 26 days | 4 February 211 Natural causes | |
| Caracalla IMPERATOR CAESAR MARCVS AVRELIVS ANTONINVS AVGVSTVS | 4 April 188, Lugdunum, Gallia Lugdunensis | Son of Septimius Severus; co-emperor with Severus from 198; with Severus and Geta from 209 until February 211; co-emperor with Geta until December 211 | 4 February 211 – 8 April 217 | 13 years as joint emperor 10 months with Geta 6 years as sole emperor | 8 April 217 Murdered by a soldier as part of a conspiracy involving Macrinus | |
| Geta IMPERATOR CAESAR PVBLIVS SEPTIMIVS CETA AVGVSTUS | 7 March 189, Rome | Son of Septimius Severus; co-emperor with Severus and Caracalla from 209 until February 211; co-emperor with Caracalla until December 211 | 4 February – 26 December 211 | 2 years as joint emperor 10 months with Caracalla | 26 December 211 Murdered on the orders of Caracalla | |
| Macrinus IMPERATOR CAESAR MARCVS OPELLIVS SEVERVS MACRINVS AVGVSTVS with Diadumenian IMPERATOR CAESAR MARCVS OPELLIVS ANTONINVS DIADVMENIANVS AVGVSTVS | c. 165, Caesarea, Mauretania | Praetorian Prefect to Caracalla, probably conspired to have Caracalla murdered and proclaimed himself emperor after Caracalla's death; made his son Diadumenian co-emperor in May 218 | 11 April 217 – 8 June 218 | 1 year, 1 month and 28 days | 8 June 218 Both executed in favour of Elagabalus | |
| Elagabalus IMPERATOR CAESAR MARCVS AVRELIVS ANTONINVS AVGVSTVS | c. 204, Emesa, Syria | Grandnephew of Septimius Severus, first cousin once removed and alleged illegitimate son of Caracalla; proclaimed emperor by Syrian legions | 8 June 218 – 11 March 222 | 3 years, 9 months and 3 days | 11 March 222 Murdered by Praetorian Guard | |
| Severus Alexander IMPERATOR CAESAR MARCVS AVRELIVS SEVERVS ALEXANDER AVGVSTVS | c. 208, Arca Caesarea, Syria | Grandnephew of Septimius Severus, cousin and adoptive heir of Elagabalus | 13 March 222 – 18 March 235 | 13 years and 5 days | 18 March 235 Murdered by the army |
235–285: Gordian dynasty and Crisis of the Third Century
| Portrait | Name | Birth | Succession | Reign | Time in office | Death |
| Maximinus Thrax IMPERATOR CAESAR GAIVS IVLIVS VERVS MAXIMINVS AVGVSTVS | c. 173, Thrace or Moesia | Proclaimed emperor by Germanic legions after the murder of Severus Alexander | 20 March 235 – June 238 | 3 years, 3 months | June 238 Assassinated by his men during the siege of Aquileia | |
| Gordian I IMPERATOR CAESAR MARCVS ANTONIVS CORDIANVS SEMPRONIANVS ROMANVS AFRICANVS AVGVSTVS | c. 159, Phrygia? | Proclaimed emperor, whilst Pro-consul in Africa, during a revolt against Maximinus. Ruled jointly with his son Gordian II, and in opposition to Maximinus. Technically a usurper, but retrospectively legitimised by the accession of Gordian III | March 22, 238 – April 12, 238 | 21 days | April 238 Committed suicide upon hearing of the death of Gordian II. | |
| Gordian II IMPERATOR CAESAR MARCVS ANTONIVS CORDIANVS SEMPRONIANVS ROMANVS AFRICANVS AVGVSTVS | c. 192, ? | Proclaimed emperor, alongside father Gordian I, in opposition to Maximinus by act of the Senate. | March 22, 238 – April 12, 238 | 21 days | April 238 Killed during the Battle of Carthage, fighting a pro-Maximinus army | |
| Pupienus IMPERATOR CAESAR MARCVS CLODIVS PVPIENVS MAXIMVS AVGVSTVS | c. 165 or 170 | Proclaimed joint emperor with Balbinus by the Senate in opposition to Maximinus; later co-emperor with Balbinus. | April 22, 238 – July 29, 238 | 3 months and 7 days | July 29, 238 Assassinated by the Praetorian Guard | |
| Balbinus IMPERATOR CAESAR DECIMVS CAELIVS CALVINVS BALBINVS PIVS AVGVSTVS | 178 | Proclaimed joint emperor with Pupienus by the Senate after death of Gordian I and II, in opposition to Maximinus; later co-emperor with Pupienus and Gordian III | April 22, 238 – July 29, 238 | 3 months and 7 days | July 29, 238 Assassinated by Praetorian Guard | |
| Gordian III IMPERATOR CAESAR MARCVS ANTONIVS CORDIANVS PIVS AVGVSTVS | January 20, 225, Rome | Proclaimed emperor by supporters of Gordian I and II, then by the Senate; joint emperor with Pupienus and Balbinus until July 238; grandson and nephew of Gordian I and II, respectively | April 22, 238 – February 11, 244 | 5 years, 9 months and 20 days | February 11, 244 Unknown; possibly murdered on orders of Philip I | |
| Philip the Arab IMPERATOR CAESAR MARCVS IVLIVS PHILIPPVS AVGVSTVS with Philip II IMPERATOR CAESAR MARCVS IVLIVS SEVERVS PHILLIPVS AVGVSTVS | c. 204, Shahba, Syria | Praetorian Prefect to Gordian III, took power after his death; made his son Philip II co-emperor in summer 247 | February 244 – September/October 249 | 5 years | September/October 249 Killed in the Battle of Verona by Decius, Philip II murdered by the Praetorian Guard | |
| Decius IMPERATOR CAESAR CAIVS MESSIVS QVINTVS TRAIANVS DECIVS AVGVSTVS with Herennius Etruscus IMPERATOR CAESAR QVINTVS HERENNIVS ETRVSCVS MESSIVS DECIVS AVGVSTVS | c. 201, Budalia, Pannonia Inferior | Governor under Philip the Arab; proclaimed emperor by Danubian legions then defeating and killing Philip in the Battle of Verona; made his son Herennius Etruscus co-emperor in early 251 | September/ October 249 – June 251 | 2 years | June 251 Both killed in the Battle of Abrittus fighting against the Goths | |
| Hostilian IMPERATOR CAESAR CAIVS VALENS HOSTILIANVS MESSIVS QVINTVS AVGVSTVS | Sirmium | Son of Decius, accepted as heir by the Senate | June 251 – late 251 | 4–5 months | September/October 251 Natural causes | |
| Trebonianus Gallus IMPERATOR CAESAR GAIVS VIBIVS AFINIVS TREBONIANVS GALLVS AVGVSTVS with Volusianus IMPERATOR CAESAR GAIVS VIBIVS VOLVSIANVS AVGVSTVS | 206, Italia | Governor of Moesia Superior, proclaimed emperor by Danubian legions after Decius's death ; made his son Volusianus co-emperor in late 251. | June 251 – August 253 | 2 years | August 253 Assassinated by their own troops, in favour of Aemilian | |
| Aemilian IMPERATOR CAESAR MARCVS AEMILIVS AEMILIANVS AVGVSTVS | c. 207 or 213 Africa | Governor of Moesia Superior, proclaimed emperor by Danubian legions after defeating the Goths; accepted as emperor after death of Gallus | August 253 – October 253 | 2 months | September/October 253 Assassinated by his own troops, in favour of Valerian | |
| Valerian IMPERATOR CAESAR PVBLIVS LICINIVS VALERIANVS AVGVSTVS | c. 195 | Governor of Noricum and Raetia, proclaimed emperor by Rhine legions after death of Gallus; accepted as emperor after death of Aemilian | October 253 – 260 | 7 years | After 260 Captured in Battle of Edessa against Persians, died in captivity | |
| Gallienus IMPERATOR CAESAR PVBLIVS LICINIVS EGNATIVS GALLIENVS AVGVSTVS with Saloninus IMPERATOR CAESAR CORNELIVS LICINIVS SALONINVS VALERIANVS PIVS FELIX INVICTVS AVGVSTVS | 218 | Son of Valerian, made co-emperor in 253; his son Saloninus is very briefly co-emperor in c. July 260 before assassination by Postumus. | October 253 – September 268 | 15 years | September 268 Murdered at Aquileia by his own commanders. | |
| Claudius Gothicus IMPERATOR CAESAR MARCVS AVRELIVS VALERIVS CLAVDIVS AVGVSTVS | May 10, 210, Sirmium | Victorious general at Battle of Naissus, seized power after Gallienus's death | September 268 – January 270 | 1 year, 4 months | January 270 Natural causes | |
| Quintillus IMPERATOR CAESAR MARCVS AVRELIVS CLAVDIVS QVINTILLVS AVGVSTVS | c.210, Sirmium | Brother of Claudius II, seized power after his death | January 270 – September 270 | Unknown | 270 Unclear; possibly suicide or murder | |
| Aurelian IMPERATOR CAESAR LVCIVS DOMITIVS AVRELIANVS AVGVSTVS | September 9, 214/215, Sirmium | Proclaimed emperor by Danubian legions after Claudius II's death, in opposition to Quintillus | September 270 – September 275 | 5 years | September 275 Assassinated by Praetorian Guard | |
| Tacitus IMPERATOR CAESAR MARCVS CLAVDIVS TACITVS AVGVSTVS | c. 200, Interamna Nahars, Italia | Elected by the Senate to replace Aurelian, after a short interregnum | September 25, 275 – June 276 | 9 months | June 276 Natural causes | |
| Florianus IMPERATOR CAESAR MARCVS ANNIVS FLORIANVS AVGVSTVS | ? | Brother of Tacitus, elected by the army in the west to replace him | June 276 – September? 276 | 3 months | September? 276 Assassinated by his own troops, in favour of Probus | |
| Probus IMPERATOR CAESAR MARCVS AVRELIVS PROBVS AVGVSTVS | 232, Sirmium | Governor of the eastern provinces, proclaimed emperor by Danubian legions in opposition to Florian | September? 276 – September/ October 282 | 6 years | September/ October 282 Assassinated by his own troops, in favour of Carus | |
| Carus IMPERATOR CAESAR MARCVS AVRELIVS CARVS AVGVSTVS | c. 230, Narbo, Gallia Narbonensis | Praetorian Prefect to Probus; seized power either before or after Probus was murdered; made his son Carinus co-emperor in early 283 | September/ October 282 – late July/ early August 283 | 10–11 months | Late July/August 283 Probably of unnatural causes, as he was reportedly struck by lightning | |
| Carinus CAESAR MARCVS AVRELIVS CARINVS AVGVSTVS | ? | Son of Carus, ruled shortly with him as co-emperor and then in his own right with his brother Numerian | Late July/early August 283 – 285 | 2 years | 285 Probably died in battle against Diocletian | |
| Numerian IMPERATOR CAESAR MARCVS AVRELIVS NVMERIVS NVMERIANVS AVGVSTVS | ? | Son of Carus, succeeded him jointly with his brother Carinus | Late July/early August 283 – 284? | 1 year | 284 Unclear; possibly assassinated |
The Dominate
284–364: Tetrarchy and Constantinian dynasty
Note: To maintain control and improve administration, various schemes to divide the work of the Roman Emperor by sharing it between individuals were tried after 285. The "Tetrarchy" proclaimed by Diocletian in 293 split the empire into two halves each to be ruled separately by two emperors, a senior "Augustus", and a junior "Caesar".| Portrait | Name | Birth | Succession | Reign | Time in office | Death |
| Diocletian IMPERATOR CAESAR CAIVS AVRELIVS VALERIVS DIOCLETIANVS AVGVSTVS then, after 286 | c. December 22, 244, Salona | Proclaimed emperor by army after death of Numerian, and in opposition to Carinus; adopted Maximian as senior co-emperor in 286 | November 20, 284 – May 1, 305 | 20 years, 5 months and 11 days | 3 December 311 Abdicated; died of natural causes in Aspalatos | |
| Maximian IMPERATOR CAESAR MARCVS AVRELIVS VALERIVS MAXIMIANVS HERCVLIVS AVGVSTVS | c. 250, near Sirmium, Pannonia | Adopted as senior co-emperor in the west by Diocletian in 286 | April 1, 286 – May 1, 305 | 19 years and 1 month | 310 Abdicated with Diocletian; twice tried to regain throne with, and then from Maxentius; captured by Constantine I and committed suicide at his behest | |
| Galerius IMPERATOR CAESAR GAIVS GALERIVS VALERIVS MAXIMIANVS AVGVSTVS | c. 250, Felix Romuliana, Moesia Superior | Adopted as junior co-emperor and heir by Diocletian in 293. Also son-in-law of Diocletian. | May 1, 305 – May 311 | 6 years | 311 Natural causes | |
| Constantius Chlorus IMPERATOR CAESAR MARCVS FLAVIVS VALERIVS CONSTANTIVS HERCVLIVS AVGVSTVS | March 31, c. 250, Dardania, Moesia | Adopted as junior co-emperor and heir by Maximian in 293 | May 1, 305 – July 25, 306 | 1 year, 2 months and 24 days | 306 Natural causes | |
| Valerius Severus IMPERATOR CAESAR FLAVIVS VALERIVS SEVERVS AVGVSTVS | ? | Adopted as junior co-emperor and heir by Constantius Chlorus in 305; succeeded as Augustus in 306; opposed by Maxentius and Constantine I | Summer 306 – March/ April 307 | 1 year | September 16, 307 Captured by Maxentius and forced to commit suicide | |
| Constantine the Great IMPERATOR CAESAR FLAVIVS VALERIVS AVRELIVS CONSTANTINVS AVGVSTVS then, after 324 | February 27, c. 272, Naissus, Moesia Superior | Son of Constantius I Chlorus, proclaimed emperor by his father's troops; accepted as Caesar by Galerius in 306; promoted to Augustus in 307 by Maximian after death of Severus II; refused relegation to Caesar in 309 | July 25, 306 – May 22, 337 | 30 years, 9 months and 27 days | May 22, 337 Natural causes | |
| Maxentius IMPERATOR CAESAR MARCVS AVRELIVS VALERIVS MAXENTIVS AVGVSTVS | c. 276 | Son of Maximian, seized power in 306 after death of Constantius I Chlorus, in opposition to Severus and Constantine I; made Caesar by Maximian in 307 after the death of Severus | October 28, 306 – October 28, 312 | 6 years | October 28, 312 Died at the Battle of the Milvian Bridge, against Constantine I | |
| Licinius IMPERATOR CAESAR CAIVS VALERIVS LICINIANVS LICINIVS AVGVSTVS with Valerius Valens IMPERATOR CAESAR AVRELIVS VALERIVS VALENS AVGVSTVS and Martinian IMPERATOR CAESAR SEXTVS MARCIVS MARTININANVS AVGVSTVS | c. 263, Felix Romuliana, Moesia Superior | Son-in-law of Constantius Chlorus, appointed Augustus in the west by Galerius in 308, in opposition to Maxentius; became Augustus in the east in 311 after the death of Galerius ; defeated Maximinus II in civil war to become sole eastern Augustus in 313; appointed Valerius Valens in 317, and Martinian in 324 as western Augustus, in opposition to Constantine, both being executed within weeks. | November 11, 308 – September 18, 324 | 15 years, 10 months and 7 days | 325 Defeated in civil war against Constantine I in 324 and captured; executed on the orders of Constantine the next year | |
| Maximinus II IMPERATOR CAESAR CAIVS CALERIVS VALERIVS MAXIMINVS AVGVSTVS | November 20, c. 270, Dacia Aureliana | Nephew of Galerius, adopted as Caesar and his heir in 305; succeeded as Augustus in 311 | May 1, 311 – July/August 313 | 2 years | July/August 313 Defeated in civil war against Licinius; probably committed suicide thereafter | |
| Constantine II IMPERATOR CAESAR FLAVIVS CLAVDIVS CONSTANTINVS AVGVSTVS | 316, Arelate, Gallia Narbonensis | Son of Constantine I; appointed Caesar in 317, succeeded as joint Augustus with his brothers Constantius II and Constans I | May 22, 337 – 340 | 3 years | 340 Died in battle against Constans I | |
| Constantius II IMPERATOR CAESAR FLAVIVS IVLIVS CONSTANTIVS AVGVSTVS then, after 353 | August 7, 317, Sirmium, Pannonia | Son of Constantine I; succeeded as joint Augustus with his brothers Constantine II and Constans I; sole emperor from 350 | May 22, 337 – November 3, 361 | 24 years, 5 months and 12 days | 361 Natural causes | |
| Constans I IMPERATOR CAESAR FLAVIVS IVLIVS CONSTANS AVGVSTVS then, after 340 | c. 323 | Son of Constantine I; succeeded as joint Augustus with his brothers Constantine II and Constantius II | May 22, 337 – 350 | 13 years | 350 Assassinated on the orders of the usurper Magnentius | |
| Vetranio IMPERATOR CAESAR FLAVIVS VETRANIO AVGVSTVS | ?, Moesia | General of Constans, proclaimed Caesar against Magnentius and temporarily accepted as Augustus of the west by Constantius II. | March 1, 350 – December 25, 350 | 9 months and 24 days | c. 356 As a private citizen, after abdication. | |
| Julian IMPERATOR CAESAR FLAVIVS CLAVDIVS IVLIANVS AVGVSTVS then, after 361 | 331/332, Constantinople, Thracia | Cousin of Constantius II; made Caesar of the west in 355; proclaimed Augustus by his troops in 360; sole emperor after the death of Constantius | February 360 – June 26, 363 | 3 years | June 26, 363 Mortally wounded in battle | |
| Jovian IMPERATOR CAESAR FLAVIVS IOVIANVS AVGVSTVS | 331, Singidunum, Moesia | General of Julian's army; proclaimed emperor by the troops on Julian's death | June 26, 363 – February 17, 364 | 7 months and 22 days | February 17, 364 Natural causes |
364–392: Valentinian dynasty
| Portrait | Name | Birth | Succession | Reign | Time in office | Death |
| Valentinian I IMPERATOR CAESAR FLAVIVS VALENTINIANVS AVGVSTVS then | 321, Cibalae, Pannonia | Elected to replace Jovian by the army | February 26, 364 – November 17, 375 | 11 years, 8 months and 22 days | November 17, 375 Natural causes | |
| Valens IMPERATOR CAESAR FLAVIVS IVLIVS VALENS AVGVSTVS | 328, Cibalae, Pannonia | Brother of Valentinian I, appointed co-augustus by him | March 28, 364 – August 9, 378 | 14 years, 4 months and 12 days | August 9, 378 Killed in Battle of Adrianople against the Goths | |
| Gratian IMPERATOR CAESAR FLAVIVS GRATIANVS AVGVSTVS | April 18/May 23, 359, Sirmium, Pannonia | Son of Valentinian I, appointed junior Augustus by him in 367, became senior Augustus after Valentinian's death. | August 4, 367 – August 25, 383 | 16 years and 21 days | August 25, 383 Murdered by rebellious army faction | |
| Valentinian II IMPERATOR CAESAR FLAVIVS VALENTINIANVS AVGVSTVS | 371, Milan, Italia | Son of Valentinian I, proclaimed emperor by Pannonian army after Valentinian's death; accepted as co-Augustus for the west by Gratian | November 17, 375 – May 15, 392 | 16 years, 5 months and 28 days | May 15, 392 Unclear; possibly murdered or committed suicide |
| Portrait | Name | Birth | Succession | Reign | Time in office | Death |
| Eugenius IMPERATOR CAESAR FLAVIVS EVGENIVS AVGVSTVS | ? | Usurper in the West; elevated to emperor by Arbogast. | August 22 392 – September 6, 394 | 2 years, 15 days | September 6, 394 Executed as a criminal by Theodosius I near the Frigidus river |
Western Emperors
392–455: Theodosian dynasty
Note: Theodosius I was the last person to rule both halves of the Roman Empire, dividing the administration between his sons Arcadius and Honorius on his death.| Portrait | Name | Birth | Succession | Reign | Time in office | Death |
| Theodosius I IMPERATOR CAESAR FLAVIVS THEODOSIVS AVGVSTVS | January 11, 347, Cauca or Italica, Hispania | Son-in-law of Valentinian I, appointed as Augustus for the east by Gratian after the death of Valens; became sole senior Augustus after death of Valentinian II | May 15, 392 – January 17, 395 | 2 years, 8 months and 2 days | January 17, 395 Natural causes | |
| Honorius IMPERATOR CAESAR FLAVIVS HONORIVS AVGVSTVS | September 9, 384 | Son of Theodosius I; appointed as junior Augustus for the west by Theodosius on January 23, 393 ; became senior Augustus for the west after his father's death | January 17, 395 – August 15, 423 | 28 years, 6 months and 29 days | August 15, 423 Natural causes | |
| Constantine III IMPERATOR CAESAR FLAVIVS CLAVDIVS CONSTANTINVS AVGVSTVS with Constans II IMPERATOR CAESAR FLAVIVS CONSTANS AVGVSTVS | ? | Usurper who declared himself emperor in the west in 407, recognized as co-emperor by Honorius in 409. Elevated his son Constans II to co-emperor in 409, who was not recognized by Honorius. Neither recognized by the Eastern Empire. | 407/409 - August or September 411 | 2 years | August or September 411 Executed by Constantius III | |
| Constantius III IMPERATOR CAESAR FLAVIVS CONSTANTIVS AVGVSTVS | ?, Naissus, Moesia Superior | Married to Theodosius I's daughter Galla Placidia, elevated to co-Augustus for the west by Honorius; not recognized by the Eastern Empire | February 8, 421 – September 2, 421 | 6 months and 25 days | September 2, 421 Natural causes | |
| Joannes IMPERATOR CAESAR IOHANNES AVGVSTVS | ? | A senior civil servant under Honorius, proclaimed emperor by Castinus; not recognized by the Eastern Empire | August 27, 423 – May 425 | 2 years | June or July 425 Defeated in battle by Theodosius II and Valentinian III, captured and executed | |
| Valentinian III IMPERATOR CAESAR FLAVIVS PLACIDIVS VALENTINIANVS AVGVSTVS | July 2, 419, Ravenna, Italia | Son of Constantius III, appointed Caesar for the west by Theodosius II after the death of Honorius, in opposition to the regime of Joannes; became Augustus for the west after the defeat of Joannes | October 23, 424 – March 16, 455 | 30 years, 4 months and 21 days | March 16, 455 Assassinated, possibly at the behest of Petronius Maximus |
455–476: Last emperors of the Western Empire
Note: The classical Roman Empire is usually said to have ended with the deposition of Romulus Augustulus, with its continuation in the East referred to by modern scholars as the Byzantine Empire.Eastern Emperors
379–457: Theodosian dynasty
Note: Theodosius I was the last person to rule both halves of the Roman Empire, dividing the administration between his sons Arcadius and Honorius on his death.| Portrait | Name | Birth | Succession | Reign | Time in office | Death |
| Theodosius I IMPERATOR CAESAR FLAVIVS THEODOSIVS AVGVSTVS | January 11, 347, Cauca or Italica, Hispania | Son-in-law of Valentinian I, appointed as Augustus for the east by Gratian after the death of Valens; became sole senior Augustus after death of Valentinian II | January 19, 379 – January 17, 395 | 16 years and 16 days | January 17, 395 Natural causes | |
| Arcadius IMPERATOR CAESAR FLAVIVS ARCADIVS AVGVSTVS | c. 377, Hispania | Son of Theodosius I; appointed as junior Augustus for the east by Theodosius in January 383; became senior Augustus for the east after his father's death | January 17, 395 – May 1, 408 | 13 years | May 1, 408 Natural causes | |
| Theodosius II IMPERATOR CAESAR FLAVIVS THEODOSIVS IVNIOR AVGVSTVS | April 10, 401, Constantinople | Son of Arcadius; appointed as junior Augustus for the east by Arcadius in 402; became senior Augustus for the east after his father's death | January 402 – July 28, 450 | 48 years | July 28, 450 Injuries suffered during a hunting accident | |
| Marcian IMPERATOR CAESAR FLAVIVS MARCIANVS AVGVSTVS | 396, Thrace or Illyria | Nominated as successor by Pulcheria, ruled alongside her 450-453 and later alone | November 25, 450 – January 25, 457 | 7 years | January 457 Gout |
457–518: Leonid dynasty
| Portrait | Name | Birth | Succession | Reign | Time in office | Death |
| Leo I the Thracian IMPERATOR CAESAR FLAVIVS VALERIVS LEO AVGVSTVS | 400, Dacia | Chosen by the army | 7 February 457 – 18 January 474 | 17 years | 18 January 474 Dysentery | |
| Leo II IMPERATOR CAESAR FLAVIVS LEO AVGVSTVS | 467, Constantinople | Grandson of Leo I | 18 January – 17 November 474 | 9 months | 17 November 474 Cause unknown, possibly poisoned | |
| Zeno IMPERATOR CAESAR FLAVIVS ZENO AVGVSTVS | 425, Isauria | Named co-emperor by his son Leo II on 9 February 474. | 17 November 474 – 9 April 491 | 17 years | 9 April 491 Dysentery or epilepsy | |
| Basiliscus IMPERATOR CAESAR FLAVIVS BASILISCVS AVGVSTVS with Marcus IMPERATOR CAESAR FLAVIVS MARCVS AVGVSTVS | ? | Seized throne from Zeno, Basiliscus appointed his son Marcus co-emperor at some point in 475. | 9 January 475 – August 476 | 1 year, 7 months | 476/477 Starved to death in Limnae by Zeno | |
| Anastasius I Dicorus IMPERATOR CAESAR FLAVIVS ANASTASIVS AVGVSTVS | 430, Dyrrhachium | Son-in-law of Leo I | 11 April 491 – 9 July 518 | 27 years | 9 July 518 Natural causes |
518–602: Justinian dynasty
| Portrait | Name | Birth | Succession | Reign | Time in office | Death |
| Justin I IMPERATOR CAESAR FLAVIVS IVSTINVS AVGVSTVS | 450 at Bederiana, Dardania | Elected by army | July 518 – 1 August 527 | 9 years | 1 August 527 Natural causes | |
| Justinian I IMPERATOR CAESAR FLAVIVS PETRVS SABBATIVS IVSTINIANVS AVGVSTVS | 482 at Tauresium, Dardania | Nephew of Justin I | 1 August 527 – 13/14 November 565 | 38 years | 13/14 November 565 Natural causes | |
| Justin II IMPERATOR CAESAR FLAVIVS IVSTINVS IVNIOR AVGVSTVS | 520 | Nephew of Justinian I | 14 November 565 – 5 October 578 | 13 years | 5 October 578 Natural causes, after insanity | |
| Tiberius II Constantine IMPERATOR CAESAR FLAVIVS TIBERIVS CONSTANTINVS AVGVSTVS | 535 | Adopted son of Justin II, regent from 574 | 5 October 578 – 14 August 582 | 3 years, 10 months | 14 August 582 Natural causes | |
| Maurice IMPERATOR CAESAR FLAVIVS MAURICIVS TIBERIVS AVGVSTVS with Theodosius IMPERATOR CAESAR FLAVIVS THEODOSIVS AVGVSTVS | 539 at Arabissus, Cappadocia | Son-in-law of Tiberius II, appointed his son Theodosius co-emperor in 590 | 14 August 582 – 22 November 602 | 20 years | 27 November 602 Executed, Theodosius executed a few days later by supporters of Phocas |
610–695: Heraclian dynasty
| Portrait | Name | Birth | Succession | Reign | Time in office | Death |
| Heraclius IMPERATOR CAESAR FLAVIVS HERACLIVS AVGVSTVS | 575, Cappadocia | Revolt | 5 October 610 – 11 February 641 | 30 years | 11 February, 641 Natural causes | |
| Constantine III IMPERATOR CAESAR HERACLIVS NOVVS CONSTANTINVS AVGVSTVS | 3 May 612, Constantinople | Son of Heraclius | 11 February – 24/26 May 641 | 3 months | 24/26 May 641 Tuberculosis | |
| Heraklonas IMPERATOR CAESAR FLAVIVS CONSTANTINVS HERACLIVS AVGVSTVS with Tiberius FLAVIVS TIBERIVS AVGVSTVS and Martinus FLAVIVS MARTINVS AVGVSTVS | 3 May 626, Constantinople | Son of Heraclius; his brothers Tiberius and Martinus briefly served as co-emperors. | 11 February 641 – September 641 | 7 months | unknown, but probably before 642 | |
| Constans II IMPERATOR CAESAR FLAVIVS CONSTANTINVS AVGVSTVS | 7 November 630 | Son of Constantine III. succeeded his uncle Heraklonas after he was deposed as emperor. | September 641 – 15 September 668 | 27 years | 15 September 668 Assassinated | |
| Constantine IV IMPERATOR CAESAR FLAVIVS CONSTANTINVS AVGVSTVS with Heraclius FLAVIVS HERACLIVS AVGVSTVS and Tiberius FLAVIVS TIBERIVS AVGVSTVS | 652, Constantinople | Oldest son of Constans II, co-emperor since 654. His brothers Heraclius and Tiberius, co-emperors since 659, served as co-emperors until they were mutilated and deposed by Constantine in 681. | 15 September 668 – 14 September 685 659 – 681 | 17 years 22 years | 14 September 685 Dysentery | |
| Justinian II FLAVIVS IVSTINIANVS AVGVSTVS | 668 or 669, Constantinople | Son of Constantine IV, co-emperor since 681 | 14 September 685–695 | 10 years | 11 December 711 Killed by the army |
695–717: Twenty Years' Anarchy
| Portrait | Name | Birth | Succession | Reign | Time in office | Death |
| Leontios LEONTIVS AVGVSTVS | Isauria | Revolt | 695–698 | 3 years | Executed in February 706 | |
| Tiberios III Apsimaros TIBERIVS AVGVSTVS | Pamphylia | Revolt | 698–705 | 7 years | Executed in February 706 | |
| Justinian II FLAVIVS IVSTINIANVS AVGVSTVS ' with Tiberius TIBERIVS AVGVSTVS | 668 or 669, Constantinople | Returned on the throne with Bulgar support. Named son Tiberius as co-emperor in 706. | August 705 – December 711 | 6 years ' | 11 December 711 Both killed by the army | |
| Philippikos Bardanes FILEPICVS AVGVSTVS | Pergamon | Revolt | December 711 – 3 June 713 | 1 year, 6 months | 713 | |
| Anastasios II ARTEMIVS ANASTASIVS AVGVSTVS | ? | Bureaucrat and secretary under Philippikos, he was raised to the purple by the soldiers | June 713 – November 715 | 2 years, 5 months | 718, during attempt to regain the throne | |
| Theodosius III THEODOSIVS AVGVSTVS | ? | Chosen by troops | May 715 – 25 March 717 | 2 years | Unknown. Became a monk |
717–802: Isaurian dynasty
| Portrait | Name | Birth | Succession | Reign | Time in office | Death |
| Leo III the Isaurian | 685, Germanikeia, Commagene | Rebellion | 25 March 717 – 18 June 741 | 24 years | June 741 Edema | |
| Constantine V | July 718, Constantinople | Son of Leo III | 18 June 741 – 14 September 775 | 34 years | 14 September 775 Carbuncle | |
| Artabasdos with'' Nikephoros | ? | Son-in-law of Leo III. Usurped throne. Proclaimed his son Nikephoros as co-emperor in 741/742 | June 741/742 – 2 November 743 | 1 year, 4 months | Unknown | |
| Leo IV the Khazar | 750, Constantinople | Son of Constantine V | 14 September 775 – 8 September 780 | 5 years | 780 Tuberculosis | |
| Constantine VI | 771, Constantinople | Son of Leo IV | 8 September 780 – August 797 | 17 years | 797 After blinding by Irene | |
| Irene of Athens | 752, Athens | Regent during minority of Constantine VI. Seized throne from son in 797. First Byzantine empress regnant. | August 797 – 31 October 802 | 5 years | 9 August 803 |
802–813: Nikephorian dynasty
| Portrait | Name | Birth | Succession | Reign | Time in office | Death |
| Nikephoros I | ? | Rebellion | 31 October 802 – 26 July 811 | 9 years | 26 July 811 After the Battle of Pliska | |
| Staurakios | After 778 | Son of Nikephoros I | 26 July 811 – 2 October 811 | 4 months | January 11 812 Gangrene | |
| Michael I Rangabe with Theophylact | c. 770 | Son-in-law of Nikephoros I, appointed his son Theophylact as co-emperor on 25 December 811 | 2 October 811 – 22 June 813 | 1 year, 8 months | January 11 844 In a monastery on Prote Island, Theophylact died in a monastery on Plate Island on January 15 849 |
820–867: Amorian dynasty
| Portrait | Name | Birth | Succession | Reign | Time in office | Death |
| Michael II | c. 775 | Chosen after murder of predecessor | 25 December 820 – 2 October 829 | 9 years | 2 October 829 | |
| Theophilos | 805 | Only son of Michael II and co-emperor since 821 | 2 October 829 – 20 January 842 | 13 years | 20 January 842 Unknown disease | |
| Michael III | 19 January 840, Constantinople | Son of Theophilos | 20 January 842 – 23 September 867 | 25 years | 23 September 867 Assassinated by successor |
867–1056: Macedonian dynasty
| Portrait | Name | Birth | Succession | Reign | Time in office | Death |
| Basil I the Macedonian | 811, Macedonia | Previous co-emperor, full emperor upon death of predecessor. | 867 – 29 August 886 | 19 years | 29 August 886 | |
| Leo VI the Wise , co-emperor since 870. | 886 – 11 May 912 | 26 years | 11 May 912 | |||
| Alexander | 23 November 870 | Son of Basil I, co-emperor since 879. | 11 May 912 – 6 June 913 | 1 year, 1 month | 6 June 913 Exhaustion after a game of tzykanion | |
| Constantine VII | 17/18 May 905 | Son of Leo VI, co-emperor since 908. | 6 June 913 – 9 November 959 | 46 years | 9 November 959, Constantinople Possibly poisoned by his son Romanos II | |
| Romanos I Lekapenos with Christopher Lekapenos and Stephen Lekapenos and Constantine Lekapenos | c. 870, Lakape | Regent for the young Constantine VII, crowned himself senior emperor during Constantine VII's minority. Proclaimed his three sons Christopher, Stephen and Constantine as co-emperors. Was overthrown by Stephen in 944, who briefly ruled as senior emperor until he himself was overthrown by Constantine VII. | 17 December 920 – 16 December 944 20 May 921 – August 931 924–945 | 24 years 10 years 21 years | 15 June 948 In a monastery as a monk after having been overthrown. Christopher died in August of 931. Both Stephen and Constantine died in exile as monks; Stephen on Easter 963 on Lesbos and Constantine in 946-948 on Samothrace trying to escape exile and reclaim imperial power | |
| Romanos II | c. 938 | Son of Constantine VII | 9 November 959 – 15 March 963 | 4 years | 15 March 963 Possibly poisoned | |
| Nikephoros II Phokas | c. 912 | Chosen by the army, acted as senior emperor during the regency of young emperors Basil II and Constantine VIII | 16 August 963 – 11 December 969 | 6 years | 11 December 969, Constantinople Assassinated by successor John I Tzimiskes | |
| John I Tzimiskes | c. 925 | Nephew of Nikephoros II Phokas, succeeded as senior emperor and regent for the young emperors Basil II and Constantine VIII | 11 December 969 – 10 January 976 | 7 years | 10 January 976, Constantinople Poisoned by Imperial chamberlain Basil Lekapenos | |
| Basil II | 958, Constantinople | Eldest son of Romanos II | 10 January 976 – 15 December 1025 | 49 years | 15 December 1025, Constantinople | |
| Constantine VIII | 960, Constantinople | Second son of Romanos II, co-emperor since 962. | 15 December 1025 – 15 November 1028 | 3 years | 15 November 1028, Constantinople | |
| Zoe Porphyrogenita | c. 978, Constantinople | Daughter of Constantine VIII, succeeded on her father's death along with her sister Theodora. Her three husbands, Romanos III, Michael IV and Constantine IX ruled alongside her. | 15 November 1028 – June 1050 | 22 years | June 1050, Constantinople | |
| Romanos III Argyros | 968 | Chosen by Constantine VIII to marry his daughter Zoe and succeed him as emperor. | 15 November 1028 – 11 April 1034 | 6 years | 11 April 1034, Constantinople Allegedly murdered | |
| Michael IV the Paphlagonian | 1010 | Succeeded Romanos III as Zoe's husband and emperor. | 11 April 1034 – 10 December 1041 | 7 years | 10 December 1041, Constantinople Died after a long illness. | |
| Michael V Kalaphates | 1015 | Nephew and adopted son of Michael IV. | 10 December 1041 – 20 April 1042 | 5 months | 24 August, 1042, Constantinople Deposed, blinded, castrated and tonsured after attempting to sideline Zoe and her sister Theodora. | |
| Theodora Porphyrogenita | c. 980 | Younger sister of Zoe, raised to co-empress in 1042. | 19 April 1042 – 31 August 1056 | 14 years | 31 August 1056, Constantinople Died after sudden illness. | |
| Constantine IX Monomachos | c. 1000 | Zoe's third husband | 11 June 1042 – 11 January 1055 | 13 years | 11 January 1055, Constantinople Died after illness. |
| Portrait | Name | Birth | Succession | Reign | Time in office | Death |
| Isaac I Komnenos | c. 1005 | Rebellion | 5 June 1057 – 22 November 1059 | 2 years | c. 1061 after having voluntarily abdicated. |
1059–1081: Doukid dynasty
| Portrait | Name | Birth | Succession | Reign | Time in office | Death |
| Constantine X Doukas | 1006 | Chosen successor of Isaac I Komnenos | 24 November 1059 – 22 May 1067 | 8 years | 22 May 1067 | |
| Michael VII Doukas with Andronikos Doukas and Konstantios Doukas and Constantine Doukas | 1050 | Son of Constantine X Doukas and co-emperor since 1059, resigned the throne in 1078. Reigned alongside his brothers Andronikos and Konstantios as co-emperors. Andronikos died in the 1070s while Konstantios briefly succeeded Michael as senior emperor before being handed over to the usurper Nikephoros III and exiled. Michael's son Constantine was also raised to co-emperor in 1074. | 22 May 1067 – 31 March 1078 1068 – 1070s 1060–1078 1074–1078 | 11 years 18 years 4 years | 1090, Constantinople, Konstantios died in the Battle of Dyrrhachium on 18 October 1081, having been recalled as a general by Alexios I. Constantine was later raised to co-emperor again under Alexios I and died in 1095 | |
| Romanos IV Diogenes | 1032 | Married to Constantine X's widow and senior emperor as guardian of her sons by Constantine X | 1 January 1068 – 24 October 1071 | 3 years | 1072, after having been deposed, blinded and exiled | |
| Nikephoros III Botaneiates | 1001 | Rebellion | 31 March 1078 – 4 April 1081 | 3 years | 10 December 1081, after having been deposed and exiled to a monastery |
1081–1185: Komnenid dynasty
| Portrait | Name | Birth | Succession | Reign | Time in office | Death |
| Alexios I Komnenos with Constantine Doukas ' | 1056 | Rebellion, nephew of Isaac I Komnenos, appointed Constantine Doukas as co-emperor in 1081. Replaced Constantine with his own son John II in 1087. | 4 April 1081 – 15 August 1118 1081 – 1087 | 37 years 6 years | 15 August 1118 | |
| John II Komnenos with Alexios Komnenos | 13 September 1087, Constantinople | Son of Alexios I, co-emperor since 1087, appointed his son Alexios co-emperor in 1122 | 15 August 1118 – 8 April 1143 1122 – 1142 | 25 years 20 years | 8 April 1143, Cilicia Accidentally cut himself on a poisoned arrow. Alexios died in Attaleia on 2 August 1142 of a fever | |
| Manuel I Komnenos | 28 November, 1118, Constantinople | Son of John II | 1143 – 24 September 1180 | 37 years | 24 September 1180 | |
| Alexios II Komnenos | 14 September 1169, Constantinople | Son of Manuel I | 24 September 1180 – October 1183 | 3 years | October 1183, Constantinople Deposed and killed by successor | |
| Andronikos I Komnenos with John Komnenos''' | c. 1118 | Nephew of John II, uncle of Alexios II, appointed his son John as co-emperor in November 1183 | October 1183 – 12 September 1185 | 2 years | 12 September 1185, Constantinople Overthrown and lynched in a popular uprising, John also seized and probably killed |
1185–1204: Angelid dynasty
1204–1261: Laskarid dynasty
Note: Between 1204 and 1261 there was an interregnum when Constantinople was occupied by the crusaders of the Fourth Crusade and the Empire was divided into the Empire of Nicaea, the Empire of Trebizond and the Despotate of Epirus, which were all contenders for rule of the Empire. The Laskarid dynasty of the Empire of Nicaea is considered the legitimate continuation of the Roman Empire because they had the support of the Patriarch of Constantinople and managed to re-take Constantinople.| Portrait | Name | Birth | Succession | Reign | Time in office | Death |
| Theodore I Laskaris | c. 1174, Constantinople | His brother Constantine Laskaris was elected emperor by the citizens of Constantinople on the day the city fell to the Crusaders; he later fled to Nicaea, where Theodore organized the Greek resistance to the Latins. Proclaimed emperor after Constantine's death in 1205, Theodore was crowned only in 1208. | 1205– November 1221 | 21 years | November 1221 | |
| John III Doukas Vatatzes | c. 1192, Didymoteicho | Son-in-law of Theodore I | 15 December 1221 – 3 November 1254 | 33 years | 3 November 1254, Nymphaion | |
| Theodore II Laskaris | c. 1222, Nicaea | Son of John III | 3 November 1254– 18 August 1258 | 4 years | 18 August 1258, Magnesia Epilepsy | |
| John IV Laskaris | 25 December 1250 | Son of Theodore II | 18 August 1258– 25 December 1261 | 3 years | c. 1305, Constantinople Blinded and imprisoned by successor in 1261, died in captivity |
1261–1453: Palaiologan dynasty
| Portrait | Name | Birth | Succession | Reign | Time in office | Death |
| Michael VIII Palaiologos | 1223 | Senior emperor and regent of John IV Laskaris, grandnephew of John III by marriage and great-grandson of Alexios III | 1 January 1259– 11 December 1282 | 23 years, 11 months | 11 December 1282, Pachomion, near Lysimachia | |
| Andronikos II Palaiologos | 25 March 1259, Nicaea | Son of Michael VIII | 11 December 1282– 24 May 1328 | 45 years, 5 months | 13 February 1332, Constantinople | |
| Michael IX Palaiologos | 17 April 1277, Constantinople | Son of Andronikos II, reigned alongside him as co-emperor with full imperial style | 1295– 12 October 1320 | 25 years | 12 October 1320, Thessaloniki | |
| Andronikos III Palaiologos | 25 March 1297, Constantinople | Son of Michael IX, named co-emperor in 1316 and rival emperor since 1321. Deposed his grandfather Andronikos II in 1328 and reigned as sole emperor | 24 May 1328– 15 June 1341 | 13 years | 15 June 1341, Constantinople Possibly chronic malaria | |
| John V Palaiologos | 18 June 1332, Didymoteicho | Son of Andronikos III | 15 June 1341– 12 August 1376 | 38 years ' | 16 February 1391, Constantinople | |
| John VI Kantakouzenos with Matthew Kantakouzenos | 1292, Constantinople | Maternal relative of the Palaiologi, declared co-emperor by John V in 1341 and recognized as senior emperor in 1347 following a civil war. Appointed his son Matthew as co-emperor in 1353 | 8 February 1347– 4 December 1354 1353 – 1357 | 7 years 4 years | 15 June 1383, deposed and in exile as a monk in the Peloponnese, Matthew was defeated in 1357 and later served as the governor of the Morea until his death on the same day as his father | |
| Andronikos IV Palaiologos | 11 April 1348, Constantinople | Son of John V, co-emperor since 1352, deposed his father John V in 1376 | 12 August 1376– 1 July 1379 | 3 years | 28 June 1385, Selymbria | |
| John V Palaiologos ' | 18 June 1332, Didymoteicho | Restored to the throne after overthrowing his son Andronikos IV | 1 July 1379– 14 April 1390 | 11 years ' | 16 February 1391, Constantinople | |
| John VII Palaiologos | 1370 | Rebellion, son and co-emperor of Andronikos IV, deposed his grandfather John V | 14 April 1390– 17 September 1390 | 5 months | 22 September 1408, Thessaloniki | |
| John V Palaiologos ' | 18 June 1332, Didymoteicho | Restored to the throne after overthrowing his grandson John VII | 17 September 1390– 16 February 1391 | 5 months ' | 16 February 1391, Constantinople | |
| Manuel II Palaiologos with John VII Palaiologos and Andronikos V Palaiologos | 27 June 1350, Constantinople | Son of John V, co-emperor since 1373. John VII Palaiologos, who previously usurped the throne in 1390, was proclaimed co-emperor in 1403, keeping the title until his death in 1408. John VII also proclaimed his son, Andronikos V, co-emperor but Andronikos died before his father, in 1407. The imperial status of John and Andronikos was purely honorary. | 16 February 1391– 21 July 1425 1403 – 1408 1403 – 1407 | 34 years 5 years 4 years | 21 July 1425, Constantinople John died 22 September 1408 at Thessaloniki, Andronikos died aged 7 on September 24th, 1407. | |
| John VIII Palaiologos | 18 December 1392 | Son of Manuel II, co-emperor since 1416 | 21 July 1425– 31 October 1448 | 23 years | 31 October 1448, Constantinople | |
| Constantine XI Palaiologos''' | 8 February 1405, Constantinople | Son of Manuel II | 6 January 1449– 29 May 1453 | 4 years, 4 months, 23 days | 29 May 1453, Constantinople Refused to surrender Constantinople to the Ottoman sultan Mehmed II and died fighting during the final Ottoman attack |