Luganda tones
, the main language of southern Uganda, is a tonal language of the Bantu family, traditionally described as having three tones: high, low and falling. Rising tones are not found in Luganda, even on long vowels, since a sequence such as automatically becomes .
Tones perform various functions in Luganda: they help to distinguish one word from another, they distinguish one verb tense from another, and they are also used in sentence intonation, for example, to distinguish a statement from a question.
In Luganda some words have a lexical tone: ekibúga 'city', omusómesa 'teacher'. The tone can be a falling one: ensî 'country', omwâna 'child', eddwâliro 'hospital'. Some words have a double tone or a tone spread across three syllables in a plateau: mugóbâ 'driver', ekkómérâ 'prison'. In some nouns the tone moves position: omuwála 'girl', but muwalâ 'she is a girl'.
Other words, such as ekitabo 'book', omuntu 'person', amata 'milk', or Mbarara, are underlyingly toneless. However, toneless words usually receive automatic default tones, called a phrasal tones, on all syllables except the first: ekítábó, omúntú. But in some circumstances this phrasal tone does not appear, for example, when the word is the subject of a sentence or qualified by a number. The automatic phrasal tones are not as high-pitched as lexical tones.
Automatic phrasal tones are also added at the end of lexically-toned words. In nouns the phrasal tones begin on the syllable immediately after the fall in pitch, e.g. eddwâlíró 'hospital', masérengétá 'south'. Again, these phrasal tones do not appear when the word is used as the subject of the sentence or qualified by a number.
However, in some verbal forms the phrasal tones do not begin immediately after the accent but after an interval of two or three low-toned syllables, e.g. bálilabá 'they will see'. This complexity prevents Luganda from being described as a simple pitch-accent language.
Verbs are divided into two tonal classes, those with a tone, such as okulába 'to see', and those that are toneless apart from the automatic phrasal tone, such as okúsómá 'to read'. Verbs are subject to a series of complex tonal patterns, which vary according to tense and whether the verbs are high-toned or toneless, positive or negative, or used in a main clause or relative clause.
The complexity of the Luganda tonal system has attracted the attention of numerous scholars, who have sought ways of describing Luganda tones most economically according to different linguistic models.
General characteristics
Although there are many complexities of detail, the general lines of tone in Luganda are simple. One common pattern is for sentences to have a gradual descent from the first high tone to the last, as in the following:- kye kibúga ekikúlu mu Ugáńda 'it is the chief city in Uganda'
Another type of tonal pattern very common in Luganda is the high tone plateau. In this pattern, two high tones are at the same level, and the voice remains continuously high from one the other:
- kírí mú Úgáńda 'it is in Uganda'
- mu mambúká gá Úgáńda 'in the north of Uganda'
- Mbarara kibúga 'Mbarara is a city'
- ebitabo kkúmi 'ten books'
Types
There are various types of high tone in Luganda, of which lexical, grammatical and phrasal tones are the most important.Lexical tones
Lexical high tones are those that go with particular words, such as those on the words below:- ekibúga 'city'
- ensî 'country'
Falling lexical tones can also be heard in non-final position:
- eddwâlíró 'hospital'
- Kámpálâ ' Kampala'
- eddúúkâ 'shop'
Grammatical tones
A grammatical tone is one that arises when a verb is used in a particular tense. For example, a verb in the subjunctive mood always has a high or falling tone on the last syllable:- muyingirê 'you should come in, please come in'
Phrasal tones
Phrasal tones are high tones automatically added to words in certain contexts. In other contexts, the same word may be pronounced without phrasal tones. For example, when a word without lexical tones is the subject of a sentence, or followed by a number or quantity word, it remains toneless:- Mbarara kibúga 'Mbarara is a city'
- ebitabo kkúmi 'ten books'
- ebítábó 'books'
- mu mambúká 'in the north'
- Tóró ' Toro'
- ggwé 'you '
- ssóméró 'it is a school'
- yéé 'yes'
- túgendá 'we are going'
- amasérengétá 'south'
- eddwâlíró 'hospital'
- abagândá 'Baganda people'
A lexical or grammatical tone cannot form a plateau with a following phrasal tone; there is always at least one low-toned mora in between. However, a phrasal tone can very easily form a plateau with a following lexical tone or phrasal tone:
- mu kyaló Másíńdi 'in the village of Masindi'
- túgendá mú lúgúúdó 'we are going into the street'
- ayágálá ókúlímá ámátóóké 'he wants to cultivate bananas'
Phrasal tones tend to be less prominent than lexical tones and pronounced at a lower pitch. Often in a sentence if a word with lexical tone is substituted for one with a phrasal tone, the pitch is higher.
Words containing HLL or HLLL
Normally between a lexical or grammatical high tone in Luganda and a phrasal tone, there is just one low-toned syllable or mora. However there are some words in which a high lexical or grammatical tone is followed not by one, but by two or even three low-toned syllables:- bálilabá 'they will see'
- abálilaba 'they who will see'
Intonational tones
As well as the types of tone mentioned above, there are also intonational tones such as those that distinguish a question from a statement. For example, if a toneless word asks a yes-no question, it has high tones except the last syllable, which is low. Compare these two:- ssóméró 'it is a school'
- ssóméro? 'is it a school?'
- gwe gulí gwé ńnéngérá wálî? 'is it the one I see there?'
Tones and emphasis
Luganda does not use tones for focus or emphasis. As Crabtree says, 'The tone in Luganda is level, therefore it is impossible to emphasize as in English.' Instead he lists some other ways a Luganda speaker can emphasise words, such as placing the important word first, omitting an initial vowel where it would normally be added, using a relative construction, using a negative construction and others.Downdrift (catathesis)
Lexical tone downdrift
The usual pattern when two words each have lexical or grammatical high tone is that the tone of the second word is lower than the first. The syllables in between are a little lower than the high tones, making a dip:- ebibúga mu nsî 'cities in the country'
- bonná bawalâ 'all of them are girls'
- atéma omutî 'he cuts the tree'
- mu kibúga Kámpálâ 'in the city of Kampala'
- ebibúga birí 'those cities'
There is also usually a downstep if the first word ends in a lexical tone and the second word begins with one:
- balugú múńgi 'many yams'
There is always downdrift when a phrasal tone follows a lexical one:
- kíri mu Bunyóró 'it is in Bunyoro'
Phrasal tone downdrift
An example of these types of phrases is when a noun is followed by the pronominal words banó 'these', abó 'the aforesaid', bonnâ 'all', or yekkâ 'alone', e.g.
- abántú banó 'these people'
- abántú abó 'the aforementioned people'
- abántú bonnâ 'all people'
- omúntú yekkâ 'the person alone'
- amátóóké anó bonnâ 'all those bananas'
- abántú bálî 'those people'
- báánumyá nga bálya 'they talked as they were eating'
- agámbá nti 'he says that...'
- nzé Mukásá 'I am Mukasa'
- ggwé aní? 'who are you?'
Plateauing
Lexical tone plateauing
As noted above, the usual pattern with words containing lexical tones is for each word in a series to be a little lower-pitched than the one before. However, in some circumstances two lexical tones are on the same level and form a plateau.Phrases with 'of'
Typical of such phrases are those containing the word -á 'of', which forms a plateau not only with the preceding high tone but also with the following one, for example:- mu maséréngétá gá Úgáńda 'in the south of Uganda'
If the second word is toneless, however, a plateau is made only with the preceding word:
- ekkengélé yómulénzí 'the boy's bell'
Verb + Location
- kírí mú Búgáńda 'it is in Buganda'
- bágéńdá Wáńdegeyá 'they are going to Wandegeya''
- nabígúlá mú Kámpálâ 'I bought them in Kampala'
- ogitééká kú mmééza 'you put it on the table'
- wano wáyítíbwá Kíbúli 'this place is called Kibuli'
- kíri mu maséréngétá gá Úgáńda 'it is in the south of Uganda'
However, there is usually no plateauing in this type of phrase when the verb is relative:
- ekíri mu Bugáńda 'which is in Buganda'
- tebává mu Ugáńda 'they don't come from Uganda'
- kíri mu Bunyóró 'it is in Bunyoro'
Verb + focussed object
- bágulá ébíkópo 'they buy cups'
- bágúlá bíkópo 'they buy CUPS'
'And'
- Ugáńda né Kénya 'Uganda and Kenya'
- ebíjánjááló n' ébínyóobwá 'the beans and the peanuts'
- n' ábáwálâ 'and girls'
- ebinyóobwa n' ébijánjááló 'the peanuts and the beans'
Ne is in fact toneless in phrases like the following, when it is followed by a 'narrative tense' verb :
- ne bálímâ 'and they cultivate'
- bálíná bálúgú múńgi 'they have many yams'
- tebálíná balugú múńgi 'they don't have many yams'
Verb + time
- nayózá jjó essaáti enó 'I washed this shirt yesterday'
- nassálíbwá lúlí envíirí 'I cut my hair the day before yesterday'
- watúúká ddí wanó? 'when did you arrive here?'
- nagúla dd éssááti enó 'I bought this shirt a long time ago'
Phrasal tone plateauing
- mu mambúká gá Úgáńda 'in the north of Uganda'
- avá mú Búgáńda 'he comes from Buganda'
- abántú mú kíbúga 'people in the city'
- mu kyaló Másíńdi 'in the village of Masindi'
- ebíjáńjááló byé bááúzzê 'the beans that they bought'
- ayágálá ókúlímá ámátóóké 'he wants to cultivate bananas'
- túgendá mú lúgúúdó 'we are going into the street'
- báfumbé émmére 'they are cooking emmére '
- amalwáalíró ámákúlu 'large hospitals'
In a sentence like the following, in which an HLH word like túgendá is used in a 'verb + location' sentence where the location has a lexical tone, according to Stevick, the plateau in such sentences starts with the lexical tone. However, the speaker on the recordings of the Luganda Basic Course in sentences of this kind makes a plateau starting only with the second tone, so that there is a downstep first then a plateau:
- túgéndá mú Úgáńda 'we are going to Uganda'
- túgendá mú Úgáńda 'we are going to Uganda'
Low tones then high
First, when it is the subject or topic of a sentence :
- Mbarara kibúga 'Mbarara is a city'.
- ebitabo kkúmi 'ten books'
- abantu báńgi 'many people'
- amatooke ameká? 'how many bananas?'
- buli lunáku 'each day'
- buli kitábó 'every book'
- oluvannyuma, bálya emmére 'afterwards, they eat emmére '
- nga ayagala ebijanjaalo, abigúla 'when he wants beans, he buys them'
Falling tones
- a final vowel, e.g. eggî 'egg'
- a long vowel, e.g. okulóotá 'to dream'
- a vowel followed by a prenasalised consonant, e.g. Abagândá 'Baganda people'
- a vowel following a consonant + semivowel, e.g. okulwâlá 'to fall sick'
- a short vowel followed by a geminate consonant, e.g. okubôbbá 'to throb'.
Morae
One way of explaining these facts is to analyse Luganda words as consisting of morae or moras, that is, speech segments each lasting a certain time. According to this analysis, a short vowel has one mora and a long vowel has two morae. A 'long' consonant such as gg, mb, or ly also has one mora. Thus the third syllable gâ of Abagândá can be said to be long by position, since it has two morae, one belonging to itself and the other 'borrowed from' or 'shared with' the prenasalised consonant that follows. A long syllable can have a falling tone, with the first mora high and the second mora low.Certain accommodations must be made to make the model fit. For example, an initial syllable starting with a vowel always counts as one mora, even in words like ensî 'country' where the vowel is long and followed by a prenasalised consonant.
No syllable can have more than two morae. For example, the second syllable of omwéngé 'beer' has only two, despite starting with mw and being followed by a prenasalised consonant.
Final vowels
Final vowels are usually pronounced short, but in some words the vowel becomes long before a suffix, for example ensî: kí? 'which country?'. Final vowels that can become long are considered to have two morae. Certain other final vowels, such as the final -é of the subjunctive mood, are considered to have one mora.A final vowel therefore, if it is not toneless, can either have a high tone on the second mora or on the first mora, or on its single mora. All three of these, when at the end of a sentence, are pronounced with a falling tone. In other contexts they have different pronunciations. For example, before the suffix kí 'what?' a tone on the first mora of a bimoraic final vowel falls: but a tone on the last mora will remain high.
If a word ends in a falling tone, the tone becomes an ordinary high tone in some circumstances. One of these is when it is the subject of a sentence:
- Kámpálá kibúga 'Kampala is a city'
- bonná bawalâ? 'are all of them girls?'
- balugú múńgi 'many yams'
Nouns
Luganda nouns tend to fall tonally into certain regular patterns, of which the most common are toneless tone on the second mora from the end tone on the third mora from the end. These three patterns together account for about 83% of nouns in Luganda. Some examples of the commonest patterns are as follows.Toneless nouns
Judging from the numbers in the word list at the end of the Luganda Basic Course, about one third of all nouns in Luganda are underlyingly toneless. However, when pronounced in isolation, they have phrasal tones on all but the first mora, as follows:- ekítábó 'book'
- essóméró 'school'
- omúntú 'person'
- engáttó 'shoe'
- omúlímú 'work, job'
- omúlénzí 'boy'
- akámwá 'mouth'
- olúpápúlá 'paper'
- enté 'cow'
- envá 'relish'
- amátá 'milk'
Penultimate tone
- entébe 'chair'
- ekibúga 'city'
- embúzi 'goat'
- ekikópo 'cup'
- omukóno 'hand, arm'
- enyáńja 'lake'
- ensíḿbi 'money'
- kááwa 'coffee'
Antepenultimate tone
When used before a pause, or before a pronominal word like banó 'these' or bonnâ 'all' these words acquire a phrasal tone on the final syllable:
- akagáalí akó 'that bicycle'
- omwáaka ogúyísê 'last year'
- sáánywedde mázzi ku kankyâ 'I didn't drink water for breakfast'.
- sáánywedde matá kú kánkyâ 'I didn't drink milk for breakfast'
- amáasó 'eyes'
- omwâná 'child'
- omwâká 'year'
- omwêzí 'month'
- enyáanyá 'tomatoes'
- amâzzi 'water'
- cáayi 'tea'
- ssukáari 'sugar'
- akagáali 'bicycle'
- emméeri 'ship'
- ekitûndu 'part'
- erînnya 'name'
- Abagânda 'Baganda people'
- ebugwáńjuba 'west'
- ebuváńjuba 'east'
- ekíbala 'fruit'
- ekkólero 'workshop'
- omusómesa 'teacher'
A few nouns have a double tone followed by LL:
- Áméreka 'America'
- Omusíráamu 'Muslim'
- Olufálánsa 'French '
- ennímáawa 'lemon'
- amatáfáali 'brick'
Falling tone on the final
- ensî 'country'
- eggî 'egg'
- embwâ 'dog'
- balugû 'yam'
- omutî 'tree'
- ekibíínâ 'class'
- ekkómérâ 'prison'
- olubááwô 'board'
- eddúúkâ 'shop'
- ekyéńkyâ 'breakfast'
- obukííkâ 'direction'
- mugóbâ 'driver'
- musíkâ 'heir'
Other patterns
- amasérengétá 'the south'
- eddwâlíró 'hospital'
Variable tone nouns
Certain words in Luganda have a high tone on the third mora, and the tone shifts to the following mora when the word is used without its initial vowel:- Abagânda 'Baganda people' - Bagáńda 'they are Baganda'
- omusómesa 'teacher' - musomésa 'he is a teacher'
- omuwála 'girl' - muwalâ 'she is a girl'
- omutámiivu 'drunkard' - mutamíivu 'he is a drunkard'
- agulâ 'he who buys' - abigúla 'he who buys them'
- alagíra 'he who commands' - atulágira 'he who commands us'
- ayáámba 'he who helps' - atuyáamba 'he who helps us'
- bisátu - ebísatu 'three '
- binâ - ebínâ 'four'
- bibyô - ebíbyô 'your ones '
- bbakúli 'bowl' - plural mabákúli 'bowls'
- gguníya 'sack' - plural magúníya 'sacks'
- kkaláamu 'pen, pencil' - plural makáláamu
- mbaláasi 'horse' - diminutive kabáláasi 'little horse'
Possessive pronouns ('my', 'our' etc.)
The two-syllable possessives used on their own have an HLL tone: ekkyânge 'my one ', ewâffe 'our home'. However, when they are used with a noun, they become enclitic, and if the noun is HLL this tone goes on the final vowel of the noun, making a plateau with the earlier tone:
- eríńnyá lyange 'my name'
- okusómésá wange 'my teacher'
- akagáálí kange 'my bicycle'
- cááyí waffe 'our tea'
- amázzí waffe 'our water'
- ensí: yange 'my country'
- eddúúká yange 'my shop'
- amagí gaffe 'our eggs'
- ekibúga kyange 'my city'
- ekitábo kyange 'my book'
- kitabó kyange ' my book'
- ebitábo byaabwe 'their books'
- kitóóke kyange 'my plantain tree'
- kisumúluzo kyange 'my key'
- olupápula lwange 'my paper'
- kitáámbáálá kyaffe 'our table cloth'
- mabálúwa gaange 'my letters'
- ekitábó kyô 'your book'
- eríńnyá lyô 'your name'
- ekibúgá kyô 'your city'
- akagáálí ké 'his bicycle'
- ensí: yo 'your country'
- mu kibííná: kyo 'in your class'
Verbs
High and low-toned verbs
Like many Bantu languages, Luganda has high-toned and low-toned verbs. In the infinitive, low-toned verbs have the usual phrasal tones on all but the first mora:- okúsá 'to grind'
- okwérá 'to sweep'
- okúggálá 'to shut'
- okújjá 'to come'
- okúlíndá 'to wait'
- okúsómá 'to study, read'
- okúsómésá to teach'
- okúgúlá 'to buy'
- okulyâ 'to eat'
- okunywâ 'to drink'
- okutúma 'to send'
- okulába 'to see'
- okukóla 'to work, to do'
- okufúna 'to get, obtain'
- okuyîmbá 'to sing'
- okutândíká 'to begin'
- okuyîngírá 'to enter'
Meeussen's rule (HH > HL)
Thus *bá-lí-lába 'they will see' theoretically has three high tones, one for the prefix bá- 'they', one for the future tense-marker -lí-, and one for the verb-stem itself lába 'see'. However, after the operation of Meeussen's rule, and the addition of a phrasal tone, it changes as follows:
- *bá-lí-lába > bálilabá 'they will see'
Hyman and Katamba give the following examples to illustrate how a lowered H cannot acquire a phrasal tone or form a plateau:
- bálilabá ébíkópo 'they will see cups', where bálilaba is derived from *bálílába
- abálilaba ebikópo 'they who will see cups', where abálilaba is derived from *abálílábá
Tones in tenses
Various elements add a tone to verbs:- The tone of the subject prefix. This usually has a tone if it is 'diphonic' such as bá- 'they', tú- 'we', kí- 'it' etc, but usually toneless if it is monophonic, e.g. a- 'he/she', n- 'I', o- 'you ' etc.
- The tone of the tense-marker. The tense-markers -á-, -náa-, -lí-, -kyá- all add a tone, while -a- adds a tone in the following syllable.
- The tone of the verb-stem, if it is high-toned. In the Infinitive and General Future this tone is on the first mora only, but in the Present tense it affects the first two moras.
- The tone of the negative marker. The 1st person negative marker sí- has its own tone. The negative marker with other persons is te-, which adds a tone on the following syllable. In relative-clause verbs the negative marker is -tá-.
- In addition, many tenses add a grammatical tone on the final syllable. In longer verbs, in some cases this tone may move to the penultimate syllable.
- Any sequence HLH becomes a plateau by the plateauing rule, for example tebágulá becomes tebágúlâ 'they do not buy'.
- Any sequence HH becomes HL by Meeussen's rule, unless there is a plateau; for example bálábá becomes bálaba 'they see'.
- Phrasal tones are added to the end of the verb, except that:
Relative clause verbs
- bakí abágúzé ebintu?
- yágéndá mú Búgáńda kusómésá 'what he went to Buganda for is to teach'
In object clauses, such as the following, a toneless prefix acquires a tone:
- emmére gye áfúḿba 'the staple food that she is cooking'
- emmére gye bafúḿba 'the staple food is what they are cooking'.
Examples of tenses
The tables that follow give examples of six commonly used tenses, together with the subjunctive mood and some comments on each. In the tables two verbs are used, -gula 'buy' and -lába 'see', as examples of low and high-toned verbs respectively.Present tense
basic | relative | negative | neg. rel. | |
'he buys' | agúlá | agulâ | tágúlâ | atágúlâ |
'he sees' | alába | alába | tálaba | atálaba |
'they buy' | bágulá | abágúlâ | tebágúlâ | abátágúlâ |
'they see' | bálaba | abálaba | tebálaba | abátalaba |
The underlying tones of the 3rd person plural of the high-toned verb change by Meeussen's rule as follows:
- *bá-lábá > bálaba 'they see'
When an object-infix such as -gu- 'it ' is added, the tones change as follows:
- *bá-gu-lábá > bágúlába 'they see it'
- tebálaba 'they do not see'
- tebáléétâ 'they do not bring'
- alí 'he is' - alí 'who is'
- báli 'they are' - abáli 'who are'
- alí mú Búgáńda 'he is in Buganda'
- alí mu Bugáńda 'who is in Buganda'
Perfect tense
basic | relative | negative | neg. rel. | |
'he has bought' | aguzê | aguzê | tágúzê | atágúzê |
'he has seen' | alábye | alábyê | tálábyê | atálábyê |
'they have bought' | bágúzê | abágúzê | tebágúzê | abátágúzê |
'they have seen' | bálabye | abálábyê | tebálábyê | abátálábyê |
The Perfect tense uses a different stem from the Present, and there is an underlying high tone on the ending. In longer low-toned verbs, such as -genda 'go' or -kweka 'hide ', the final tone moves to the penultimate syllable in the basic form:
- agéńze 'she has gone'
- ntégedde 'I have understood' vs. sítégéddê 'I have not understood'
Near Past tense
basic | relative | negative | neg. rel. | |
'he bought ' | yágúzê | eyágúzê | teyáguze | atááguze |
'he saw' | yálábyê | eyálábyê | teyálabye | atáálabye |
'they bought' | báágúzê | abáágúzê | tebááguze | abátááguze |
'they saw' | báálábyê | abáálábyê | tebáálabye | abátáálabye |
The Near Past tense uses the same verb-stem as the Perfect tense but with the tense marker -á-. The subject prefixes change to yá- 'he' and báá- 'they'. The final vowel once again is -ê''.
In low-toned verbs the subject prefix makes a plateau with the grammatical tone on the final vowel:
- yá-gúzê 'he bought '
- yákẃése 'he hid '
- bálabye 'he has seen'
- báá-lábyê 'he saw '
Far Past tense
basic | relative | negative | neg. rel. | |
'he bought' | yagúla | eyagúla | teyagúla | atáágula |
'he saw' | yalába | eyalába | teyalába | atáálaba |
'they bought' | báágula | abáágula | tebáágula | abátáágula |
'they saw' | báálaba | abáálaba | tebáálaba | abátáálaba |
The tense-infix of this tense is a, which puts a tone on the following syllable.
Although the forms in the table above do not appear to have a high tone on the final, in fact there is an underlying high tone, which reappears and makes a plateau in forms like the following:
- ya-gú-kwékâ 'he hid it'
Near Future tense
basic | relative | negative | neg. rel. | ||||||||||||||||||||||||
'he will buy ' | anáagúlá | anáagúlâ | táágúlê | atáágúlê | |||||||||||||||||||||||
'he will see' | anáálába | anáálába | táálábe | atáálábe | |||||||||||||||||||||||
'they will buy' | bánaagúlá | abánáágúlâGeneral Future tense
This tense has a tone on the tense-marker -lí-. The tone of this disappears by Meeussen's rule after a high-toned subject prefix. A peculiarity of this tense is that with a low-toned verb, the syllable after -lí- cannot bear a phrasal tone, even when the tone of -lí- itself is deleted by Meeussen's rule. The forms given above differ from those given by Stevick, who states that in this tense as in the Present the first two moras of a high-toned verb stem have underlying tone. However, the examples given by Hyman and Katamba imply that only the first mora of a high-toned verb has an underlying tone in this tense. Contrast the Present tense example below, in which both syllables of -laba are low, with the Future tense, where only the second syllable has a phrasal tone:
The subjunctive has no relative clause or negative form, but a negative may be made by using the subjunctive of the verb okúlémá 'to fail' plus the infinitive.
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