Mischling
Mischling was the legal term used in Nazi Germany to denote persons deemed to have both Aryan and Jewish ancestry. The Germanic root is cousin to the Latin term whence the Spanish term mestizo and French term métis originate.
In German, the word has the general denotation of hybrid, mongrel, or half-breed. Outside its use in official Nazi terminology, the term Mischlingskinder was later used to refer to war babies born to non-white soldiers and German mothers in the aftermath of World War II.
The 1952 drama, Toxi, was a popular film in Germany conveying the life and struggle of a Mischling child of German and African-American descent living in a white household.
Nuremberg laws
As defined by the Nuremberg Laws in 1935, a Jew was a person – regardless of religious affiliation or self-identification – who had at least three grandparents who had been enrolled with a Jewish congregation. A person with two Jewish grandparents was also legally "Jewish" if that person met any of these conditions:- Was enrolled as member of a Jewish congregation when the Nuremberg Laws were issued, or joined later
- Was married to a Jew.
- Was the offspring from a marriage with a Jew, which was concluded after the ban on mixed marriages.
- Was the offspring of an extramarital affair with a Jew, born out of wedlock after 31 July 1936.
Jewish identity
Soon after passage of the Enabling Act of 1933, the Nazi government promulgated several antisemitic statutes, including the Law for the Restoration of the Professional Civil Service on 7 April 1933. Using this law, the regime aimed to dismiss—along with all politically-suspect persons such as social democrats, socialists, communists and many liberals of all religions—all "non-Aryans" from all government positions in society, including public educators, and those practicing medicine in state hospitals.As a result, the term "non-Aryan" had to be defined in a way compatible with Nazi ideology. Under the "First Racial Definition" supplementary decree of 11 April, issued to clarify portions of the act passed four days prior, a "non-Aryan" was defined as one who had at least one Jewish parent or grandparent. Later, German citizens with only one Jewish grandparent were defined by the Nuremberg Laws as Mischling of the second degree. Their employment restrictions remained, but they were permitted to marry non-Jewish and non-Mischling Germans, and were not imprisoned. This distinction was not applied to non-German citizens.
According to the philosophy of Nazi antisemitism, Jewry was considered a group of people bound by close, genetic ties who formed an ethnic unit that one could neither join nor secede from. Early 20th-century books on Nordicism such as Madison Grant's The Passing of the Great Race, had a profound effect on Hitler's antisemitism. He was convinced that the Nordic Race/Culture constituted a superior branch of humanity, and viewed International Jewry as a parasitic and inferior race, determined to corrupt and exterminate both Nordic peoples and their culture through Rassenschande and cultural corruption.
Hitler declared that Marxism was constructed by International Jewry, with the aim of Bolshevising the earth, ultimately allowing Jewry to dominate/exterminate the Aryan race. With this in mind, Hitler viewed Russia as a nation of Untermenschen dominated by their Judaic masters, which posed the gravest threat to both Germany and Europe as a whole.
The Nazis defined Jewishness as partly genetic, but did not always use formal genetic tests or physiognomic features to determine one's status. In practice, records concerning the religious affiliation of one's grandparents were often the deciding factor.
Standards of the ''Schutzstaffel'' (SS)
The Schutzstaffel used a more stringent standard: In order to join, a candidate had to prove that all direct ancestors born since 1750 were not Jewish, or they would have to apply for a German Blood Certificate instead. Later, when the stresses of the war made it impracticable to confirm the ancestry of officer candidates, the extended proof of ancestry regulation was diminished to the standard laws requiring certified evidence of non-Judaism within two generations.Jewish ''Mischlinge'' as Christian converts
In the 19th century, many Jewish Germans converted to Christianity; most of them becoming Protestants rather than Catholics. Two-thirds of the German population were Protestant until 1938, when the Anschluss annexation of Austria to Germany added six million Catholics. The addition of 3.25 million Catholic Czechoslovaks of German ethnicity increased the percentage of Roman Catholics in Greater Germany to 41% in a 1939 population estimated at 79 million. One percent of the population was Jewish.German converts from Judaism typically adopted whichever Christian denomination was most dominant in their community. Therefore, about 80% of the Gentile Germans persecuted as Jews according to the Nuremberg Laws were affiliated with one of the 28 regionally-delineated Protestant church bodies. In 1933 approximately 77% of German Gentiles with Jewish ancestry were Protestant, the percentage dropped to 66% in the 1939 census, after the annexations of 1938. Converts to Christianity and their descendants had often married Christians with no recent Jewish ancestry.
As a result, by the time the Nazis came to power, many Protestants and Roman Catholics in Germany had some traceable Jewish ancestry, so that the majority of 1st- or 2nd-degree Mischlinge were Protestant, yet many were Catholics. A considerable number of German Gentiles with Jewish ancestry were irreligionists.
Lutherans with Jewish ancestry were largely in northwestern and northern Germany, Evangelical Protestants of Jewish descent in Central Germany and the country's east. Catholics with Jewish ancestry lived mostly in Western and Southern Germany, Austria and what is now the Czech Republic.
Reclassification procedures
Requests for reclassification or Aryanization were personally reviewed by Adolf Hitler. A reclassification approved by the Nazi party chancery and Hitler was considered an act of grace. Other de facto reclassifications, lacking any official document, were privileges accorded by high-ranking Nazis to certain artists and other experts by way of special protection.A second way of reclassification was by way of declaratory judgment in court. Usually the discriminated person took the action, questioning their descent from the Jewish-classified man until then regarded as their biological father. Paternity suits aiming for reclassification appeared mostly with deceased, divorced, or illegitimate fathers. They usually sought to change the discriminated litigant's status from Jewish-classified to Mischling of first degree, or from Mischling of first degree to second degree. The numbers of such suits soared whenever the Nazi government imposed new discriminations and persecutions.
The process was humiliating for the mothers who had to declare in court that they had committed adultery. The petitions were successful in the majority of cases. The high success rate was a result of several factors. First, some lawyers specialised in such procedures, prepared them professionally, and refused hopeless cases. There was no danger in the procedures because failure did not downgrade the classification of the litigant. Second, usually all the family members cooperated; including the sometimes still-living disputed father. Likely alternative fathers were often named, who either appeared themselves in court confirming their likely fatherhood, or who were already dead but were known as good friends, neighbours, or subtenants of the mother. Third, the obligatory and humiliating body examinations of those under suspicion were skewed by stereotypical Jewish perceptions. Expert witnesses would search for allegedly Jewish facial features, as conceived and understood by anti-Semites. If the doubted father was already dead, emigrated, or deported, the examination searched for these supposedly "Jewish" features in the physiognomy of the descendant. Since anti-Semitic clichés on Jewish outward appearance were so stereotyped, the average litigant did not show features clearly indicating their Jewish descent, so they often documented ambiguous results as medical evidence. Fourth, the judges tended to believe the accounts of the mothers, alternative fathers, doubted fathers, and other witnesses who had endured such public humiliation. They were not recorded for earlier perjuring, and judges would declare the prior paternity annulled, ensuring the status improvement for the litigant.
The effective assimilation of Jews and Gentiles of Jewish descent into their Gentile surroundings made matters much more complicated than the Nazis had anticipated; widespread corruption, and lack of ethical moorings among many Nazi leaders, frequently gave way to bribery, extortion, and other subterfuges concerning documentation of who was, or was not, a Jew.
Numbers of people considered Jewish ''Mischlinge''
According to the 1939 Reich census, there were about 72,000 Mischlinge of the 1st degree, ~39,000 of the 2nd degree, and potentially tens of thousands at higher degrees, which went unrecorded as those people were considered Aryan by the Reich., whose father was Jewish
According to historian Bryan Mark Rigg, up to 160,000 soldiers who were one-quarter, one-half, and even fully Jewish served in the German armed forces during World War II. This included several generals, admirals, and at least one field marshal: Erhard Milch.
Organisations of ''Mischlinge''
On 20 July 1933, initiated by the actor Gustav Friedrich, Christian Germans of Jewish descent founded a self-help organisation, initially named Reich Federation of Christian-German Citizens of non-Aryan or not of purely Aryan descent. The federation first counted only 4,500 members. In October 1934 the name was shortened to Reich association of non-Aryan Christians. In 1935, members of the federation elected the known literary historian their new president. Under his direction the federation's journal was improved and the number of members rose to 80,000 by 1936. In September 1936, the federation was renamed the more confident St Paul's Covenant Union of non-Aryan Christians after the famous Jewish convert to Christianity Paul the Apostle.In January 1937 the Nazi government forbade that organisation, allowing a new successor organisation named the 1937 Association of Provisional Reich Citizens of not purely German-blooded Descent. This name cited the insecure legal status of Mischlinge, who had been assigned the revocable status of preliminary Reich's citizens by the Nuremberg Laws, while Jewish-classified Germans had become second-class state citizens by these laws. The 1937 Association was prohibited from accepting state citizens as members—like Spiero—with three or four grandparents, who had been enrolled in a Jewish congregation. Thus that new association had lost its most prominent leaders and faded, having become an organisation solely for Mischlinge. The 1937 Association was compulsorily dissolved in 1939.
Pastor Heinrich Grüber and some enthusiasts started a new effort in 1936 to found an organisation to help Protestants of Jewish descent, but went completely neglected by the then official Protestant church bodies in Germany.
After the war some Mischlinge founded the still-existing Notgemeinschaft der durch die Nürnberger Gesetze Betroffenen.
Prominent Mischlinge
Some examples of Mischlinge:- Paul Ascher, Commander, 1st-degree Mischling receiving the German Blood Certificate
- Rudi Ball, ice hockey player and participant of the 1936 Olympic Winter Games, 1st-degree Mischling
- Erich Collin, second tenor of the Comedian Harmonists, emigrated to the US in 1935, 1st-degree Mischling
- Muriel Gardiner, psychoanalyst and psychiatrist, anti-Fascist activist, emigrated in autumn 1939 to the US, 1st-degree Mischling
- Horst Geitner, Iron Cross-awarded soldier, 1st-degree Mischling
- Ralph Giordano, writer and journalist, 1st-degree Mischling
- Werner Goldberg, Wehrmacht soldier and Nazi model, 1st-degree Mischling
- Hans von Herwarth, German diplomat, providing the Allies with information prior to and during World War II, 2nd-degree Mischling, later considered full Aryan
- Rainer Hildebrandt, anti-communist resistance fighter, historian and founder of the Checkpoint Charlie Museum, 1st-degree Mischling
- Walter H. Hollaender, Colonel, 1st-degree Mischling receiving the German Blood Certificate
- Ingeborg Hunzinger, sculptor, 1st-degree Mischling
- Helene Jacobs, member of the Confessing Church and of the German Resistance against National Socialism, 1st-degree Mischling
- Helmuth Kopp, entered the Wehrmacht in 1941, grandfather and mother Jewish, but the grandfather did not see him as Jewish
- Helmut Kruger, "He did all he could to prove his loyalty to Germany by showing his bravery in battle. He won the EKII, the EKI, and the Golden Wound Badge," mother was Jewish
- Karl-Erich Kühlenthal, Abwehr spy, handler of Alaric, 1st-degree Mischling
- Elisabeth Langgässer, author and teacher, 1st-degree Mischling
- Emil Maurice, was an early member of the National Socialist German Workers Party and a founding member of the Schutzstaffel.
- Anton Mayer, served in Adolf Hitler's army, wearing Nazi symbols, half-Jewish
- Helene Mayer, world champion Olympic fencer and participant in the 1936 Summer Olympic Games, 1st-degree Mischling
- Harry Meyen, German film actor, 1st-degree Mischling
- Inge Meysel, German actress and television performer, 1st degree Mischling
- Erhard Milch, Luftwaffe Field Marshal reclassified as Aryan by Adolf Hitler
- Ludwig Carl Moyzisch, diplomatic attaché of the Nazi Germany Embassy in Ankara, Turkey in 1943, second degree mischling
- Rudolf Petersen, Hamburg's first post-war First Burgomaster, 1st-degree Mischling
- Bernhard Rogge, Kriegsmarine captain, commander of the auxiliary cruiser Atlantis, 2nd-degree Mischling
- Helmut Schmidt, group leader in the Hitler Youth organization and later Chancellor of West Germany, Jewish grandfather
- Melitta Schenk Gräfin von Stauffenberg, aviator, obscured ancestry, unveiled in 1940 as 1st-degree Mischling, received the German Blood Certificate
- Otto Heinrich Warburg, physiologist, medical doctor and Nobel laureate, leading biochemist, 1st-degree Mischling
- Helmuth Wilberg, Luftwaffe general, 1st-degree Mischling declared Aryan in 1935 by Hitler
- Johannes Zuckertort, General for the Nazi army and Adolf Hitler, half–Jewish
Fate during the Nazi era
Discrimination in education, vocation and marriage
Those who were considered Mischlinge were generally restricted in their options of partners and marriage. Mischlinge of first degree generally needed permission to marry, and usually only to other Mischlinge or Jewish-classified persons; however, a marriage to a Jewish-classified person would re-categorize the Mischling as Geltungsjude. After 1942, marriage permissions were generally not granted any more—arguably due to the war—without further notice. Mischlinge of second degree did not need permission to marry a spouse classified as Aryan; however, marriage with Mischlinge of any degree was unwelcome. The reasoning behind this was that a mischling marrying an Aryan would produce a child with an acceptably low amount of Jewish heritage, but a mischling marrying a mischling would just produce another mischling.1st-degree Mischlinge, more so than those of 2nd-degree, had restricted access to higher education and were generally forbidden from attending such schools in 1942. As for vocations, most jobs in the public sphere—such as journalism, teaching, performing arts, government positions, politics etc.—were inaccessible to Mischlinge. Exceptions were granted for some prominent persons and those who acquired the necessary German blood certificates.