Modular form


In mathematics, a modular form is a analytic function on the upper half-plane satisfying a certain kind of functional equation with respect to the group action of the modular group, and also satisfying a growth condition. The theory of modular forms therefore belongs to complex analysis but the main importance of the theory has traditionally been in its connections with number theory. Modular forms appear in other areas, such as algebraic topology, sphere packing, and string theory.
A modular function is a function that, like a modular form, is invariant with respect to the modular group, but without the condition that be holomorphic in the upper half-plane. Instead, modular functions are meromorphic.
Modular form theory is a special case of the more general theory of automorphic forms, and therefore can now be seen as just the most concrete part of a rich theory of discrete groups.

Modular forms for SL(2, Z)

Standard definition

A modular form of weight for the modular group
is a complex-valued function on the upper half-plane satisfying the following three conditions:
  1. is a holomorphic function on.
  2. For any and any matrix in as above, we have:
  3. :
  4. is required to be holomorphic as.
Remarks:
A modular form can equivalently be defined as a function F from the set of lattices in to the set of complex numbers which satisfies certain conditions:
  1. If we consider the lattice generated by a constant and a variable, then is an analytic function of.
  2. If is a non-zero complex number and is the lattice obtained by multiplying each element of by, then where is a constant called the weight of the form.
  3. The absolute value of remains bounded above as long as the absolute value of the smallest non-zero element in is bounded away from 0.
The key idea in proving the equivalence of the two definitions is that such a function is determined, because of the second condition, by its values on lattices of the form, where.

Examples

Eisenstein series

The simplest examples from this point of view are the Eisenstein series. For each even integer, we define to be the sum of over all non-zero vectors of :
Then is a modular form of weight.
For we have
and
The condition is needed for convergence; for odd there is cancellation between and, so that such series are identically zero.

Theta functions of even unimodular lattices

An even unimodular lattice in is a lattice generated by vectors forming the columns of a matrix of determinant 1 and satisfying the condition that the square of the length of each vector in is an even integer. The so-called theta function
converges when Im > 0, and as a consequence of the Poisson summation formula can be shown to be a modular form of weight. It is not so easy to construct even unimodular lattices, but here is one way: Let be an integer divisible by 8 and consider all vectors in such that has integer coordinates, either all even or all odd, and such that the sum of the coordinates of is an even integer. We call this lattice. When, this is the lattice generated by the roots in the root system called E8. Because there is only one modular form of weight 8 up to scalar multiplication,
even though the lattices and are not similar. John Milnor observed that the 16-dimensional tori obtained by dividing by these two lattices are consequently examples of compact Riemannian manifolds which are isospectral but not isometric

The [modular discriminant]

The Dedekind eta function is defined as
where q is called the nome. Then the modular discriminant is a modular form of weight 12. The presence of 24 is related to the fact that the Leech lattice has 24 dimensions. A celebrated conjecture of Ramanujan asserted that when is expanded as a power series in q, the coefficient of for any prime has absolute value. This was confirmed by the work of Eichler, Shimura, Kuga, Ihara, and Pierre Deligne as a result of Deligne's proof of the Weil conjectures, which were shown to imply Ramanujan's conjecture.
The second and third examples give some hint of the connection between modular forms and classical questions in number theory, such as representation of integers by quadratic forms and the partition function. The crucial conceptual link between modular forms and number theory is furnished by the theory of Hecke operators, which also gives the link between the theory of modular forms and representation theory.

Modular functions

When the weight k is zero, it can be shown using Liouville's theorem that the only modular forms are constant functions. However, relaxing the requirement that f be holomorphic leads to the notion of modular functions. A function f : H → C is called modular iff it satisfies the following properties:
  1. f is meromorphic in the open upper half-plane H.
  2. For every integer matrix in the modular group,.
  3. As pointed out above, the second condition implies that f is periodic, and therefore has a Fourier series. The third condition is that this series is of the form
It is often written in terms of , as:
This is also referred to as the q-expansion of f. The coefficients are known as the Fourier coefficients of f, and the number m is called the order of the pole of f at i∞. This condition is called "meromorphic at the cusp", meaning that only finitely many negative-n coefficients are non-zero, so the q-expansion is bounded below, guaranteeing that it is meromorphic at q = 0.
Another way to phrase the definition of modular functions is to use elliptic curves: every lattice Λ determines an elliptic curve C/Λ over C; two lattices determine isomorphic elliptic curves if and only if one is obtained from the other by multiplying by some non-zero complex number. Thus, a modular function can also be regarded as a meromorphic function on the set of isomorphism classes of elliptic curves. For example, the j-invariant j of an elliptic curve, regarded as a function on the set of all elliptic curves, is a modular function. More conceptually, modular functions can be thought of as functions on the moduli space of isomorphism classes of complex elliptic curves.
A modular form f that vanishes at is called a cusp form. The smallest n such that is the order of the zero of f at.
A modular unit is a modular function whose poles and zeroes are confined to the cusps.

Modular forms for more general groups

The functional equation, i.e., the behavior of f with respect to can be relaxed by requiring it only for matrices in smaller groups.

The Riemann surface ''G''\H∗

Let be a subgroup of that is of finite index. Such a group acts on H in the same way as. The quotient topological space G\H can be shown to be a Hausdorff space. Typically it is not compact, but can be compactified by adding a finite number of points called cusps. These are points at the boundary of H, i.e. in Q∪, such that there is a parabolic element of fixing the point. This yields a compact topological space G\H∗. What is more, it can be endowed with the structure of a Riemann surface, which allows one to speak of holo- and meromorphic functions.
Important examples are, for any positive integer N, either one of the congruence subgroups
For G = Γ0 or, the spaces G\H and G\H∗ are denoted Y0 and X0 and Y, X, respectively.
The geometry of G\H∗ can be understood by studying fundamental domains for G, i.e. subsets D ⊂ H such that D intersects each orbit of the -action on H exactly once and such that the closure of D meets all orbits. For example, the genus of G\H∗ can be computed.

Definition

A modular form for of weight k is a function on H satisfying the above functional equation for all matrices in, that is holomorphic on H and at all cusps of. Again, modular forms that vanish at all cusps are called cusp forms for. The C-vector spaces of modular and cusp forms of weight k are denoted and, respectively. Similarly, a meromorphic function on G\H∗ is called a modular function for. In case G = Γ0, they are also referred to as modular/cusp forms and functions of level N. For, this gives back the afore-mentioned definitions.

Consequences

The theory of Riemann surfaces can be applied to G\H∗ to obtain further information about modular forms and functions. For example, the spaces and are finite-dimensional, and their dimensions can be computed thanks to the Riemann-Roch theorem in terms of the geometry of the -action on H. For example,
where denotes the floor function.
The modular functions constitute the field of functions of the Riemann surface, and hence form a field of transcendence degree one. If a modular function f is not identically 0, then it can be shown that the number of zeroes of f is equal to the number of poles of f in the closure of the fundamental region RΓ.It can be shown that the field of modular function of level N is generated by the functions j and j.

Line bundles

The situation can be profitably compared to that which arises in the search for functions on the projective space P: in that setting, one would ideally like functions F on the vector space V which are polynomial in the coordinates of v ≠ 0 in V and satisfy the equation F = F for all non-zero c. Unfortunately, the only such functions are constants. If we allow denominators, we can let F be the ratio of two homogeneous polynomials of the same degree. Alternatively, we can stick with polynomials and loosen the dependence on c, letting F = ckF. The solutions are then the homogeneous polynomials of degree. On the one hand, these form a finite dimensional vector space for each k, and on the other, if we let k vary, we can find the numerators and denominators for constructing all the rational functions which are really functions on the underlying projective space P.
One might ask, since the homogeneous polynomials are not really functions on P, what are they, geometrically speaking? The algebro-geometric answer is that they are sections of a sheaf. The situation with modular forms is precisely analogous.
Modular forms can also be profitably approached from this geometric direction, as sections of line bundles on the moduli space of elliptic curves.

Rings of modular forms

For a subgroup of the, the ring of modular forms is the graded ring generated by the modular forms of. In other words, if be the ring of modular forms of weight, then the ring of modular forms of is the graded ring.
Rings of modular forms of congruence subgroups of are finitely generated due to a result of Pierre Deligne and Michael Rapoport. Such rings of modular forms are generated in weight at most 6 and the relations are generated in weight at most 12 when the congruence subgroup has nonzero odd weight modular forms, and the corresponding bounds are 5 and 10 when there are no nonzero odd weight modular forms.
More generally, there are formulas for bounds on the weights of generators of the ring of modular forms and its relations for arbitrary Fuchsian groups.

Miscellaneous

Entire forms

If f is holomorphic at the cusp, it is called an entire modular form.
If f is meromorphic but not holomorphic at the cusp, it is called a non-entire modular form. For example, the j-invariant is a non-entire modular form of weight 0, and has a simple pole at i∞.

Automorphic factors and other generalizations

Other common generalizations allow the weight k to not be an integer, and allow a multiplier with to appear in the transformation, so that
Functions of the form are known as automorphic factors.
Functions such as the Dedekind eta function, a modular form of weight 1/2, may be encompassed by the theory by allowing automorphic factors. Thus, for example, let χ be a Dirichlet character mod N. A modular form of weight k, level N with nebentypus χ is a holomorphic function f on the upper half-plane such that for any
and any z in the upper half-plane, we have
and f is holomorphic at all the cusps; when the form vanishes at all cusps, it is called a cusp form.

Generalizations

There are a number of other usages of the term "modular function", apart from this classical one; for example, in the theory of Haar measures, it is a function determined by the conjugation action.
New forms are a subspace of modular forms of a fixed weight which cannot be constructed from modular forms of lower weights dividing. The other forms are called old forms. These old forms can be constructed using the following observations: if then giving a reverse inclusion of modular forms.
Maass forms are real-analytic eigenfunctions of the Laplacian but need not be holomorphic. The holomorphic parts of certain weak Maass wave forms turn out to be essentially Ramanujan's mock theta functions. Groups which are not subgroups of can be considered.
Hilbert modular forms are functions in n variables, each a complex number in the upper half-plane, satisfying a modular relation for 2×2 matrices with entries in a totally real number field.
Siegel modular forms are associated to larger symplectic groups in the same way in which classical modular forms are associated to ; in other words, they are related to abelian varieties in the same sense that classical modular forms are related to elliptic curves.
Jacobi forms are a mixture of modular forms and elliptic functions. Examples of such functions are very classical - the Jacobi theta functions and the Fourier coefficients of Siegel modular forms of genus two - but it is a relatively recent observation that the Jacobi forms have an arithmetic theory very analogous to the usual theory of modular forms.
Automorphic forms extend the notion of modular forms to general Lie groups.
Modular integral of weight is a meromorphic function on the upper half plane of moderate growth at infinity which fails to be modular of weight by a rational function.

History

The theory of modular forms was developed in four periods: first in connection with the theory of elliptic functions, in the first part of the nineteenth century; then by Felix Klein and others towards the end of the nineteenth century as the automorphic form concept became understood ; then by Erich Hecke from about 1925; and then in the 1960s, as the needs of number theory and the formulation of the modularity theorem in particular made it clear that modular forms are deeply implicated.
The term "modular form", as a systematic description, is usually attributed to Hecke.