Semantic change
Semantic change is a form of language change regarding the evolution of word usage—usually to the point that the modern meaning is radically different from the original usage. In diachronic linguistics, semantic change is a change in one of the meanings of a word. Every word has a variety of senses and connotations, which can be added, removed, or altered over time, often to the extent that cognates across space and time have very different meanings. The study of semantic change can be seen as part of etymology, onomasiology, semasiology, and semantics.
Examples
- Awful — Originally meant "inspiring wonder ". Used originally as a shortening for "full of awe", in contemporary usage the word usually has negative meaning.
- Demagogue — Originally meant "a popular leader". It is from the Greek dēmagōgós "leader of the people", from dēmos "people" + agōgós "leading, guiding". Now the word has strong connotations of a politician who panders to emotions and prejudice.
- Egregious — Originally described something that was remarkably good. The word is from the Latin egregius "illustrious, select", literally, "standing out from the flock", which is from ex—"out of" + greg— "flock". Now it means something that is remarkably bad or flagrant.
- Gay — Originally meant "lighthearted", "joyous" or "bright and showy", it also came to mean "happy"; it acquired connotations of immorality as early as 1637, either sexual e.g., gay woman "prostitute", gay man "womaniser", gay house "brothel", or otherwise, e.g., gay dog "over-indulgent man" and gay deceiver "deceitful and lecherous". In the United States by 1897 the expression gay cat referred to a hobo, especially a younger hobo in the company of an older one; by 1935, it was used in prison slang for a homosexual boy; and by 1951, and clipped to gay, referred to homosexuals. George Chauncey, in his book Gay New York, would put this shift as early as the late 19th century among a certain "in crowd" knowledgeable of gay night-life. In the modern day, it is most often used to refer to homosexuals or as a synonym for "silly", "dumb", or "boring".
- Guy — Guy Fawkes was the alleged leader of a plot to blow up the English Houses of Parliament on 5 November 1605. The day was made a holiday, Guy Fawkes Day, commemorated by parading and burning a ragged, manikin of Fawkes, known as a Guy. This led to the use of the word guy as a term for any "person of grotesque appearance" and then by the late 1800s—especially in the United States—for "any man", as in, e.g., "Some guy called for you." Over the 20th century, guy has replaced fellow in the U.S., and, under the influence of American popular culture, has been gradually replacing fellow, bloke, chap and other such words throughout the rest of the English-speaking world. In the plural, it can refer to a mixture of genders.
Types
Typology by Bloomfield (1933)
The most widely accepted scheme in the English-speaking academic world is from :- Narrowing: Change from superordinate level to subordinate level. For example, skyline formerly referred to any horizon, but now in the US it has narrowed to a horizon decorated by skyscrapers.
- Widening: There are many examples of specific brand names being used for the general product, such as with Kleenex. Such uses are known as generonyms: see genericization.
- Metaphor: Change based on similarity of thing. For example, broadcast originally meant "to cast seeds out"; with the advent of radio and television, the word was extended to indicate the transmission of audio and video signals. Outside of agricultural circles, very few use broadcast in the earlier sense.
- Metonymy: Change based on nearness in space or time, e.g., jaw "cheek" → "mandible".
- Synecdoche: Change based on whole-part relation. The convention of using capital cities to represent countries or their governments is an example of this.
- Hyperbole: Change from weaker to stronger meaning, e.g., kill "torment" → "slaughter"
- Meiosis: Change from stronger to weaker meaning, e.g., astound "strike with thunder" → "surprise strongly".
- Degeneration: e.g., knave "boy" → "servant" → "deceitful or despicable man".
- Elevation: e.g., knight "boy" → "nobleman".
Typology by Blank (1999)
- Metaphor: Change based on similarity between concepts, e.g., mouse "rodent" → "computer device".
- Metonymy: Change based on contiguity between concepts, e.g., horn "animal horn" → "musical instrument".
- Synecdoche: A type of metonymy involving a part to whole relationship, e.g. "hands" from "all hands on deck" → "bodies"
- Specialization of meaning: Downward shift in a taxonomy, e.g., corn "grain" → "wheat", → "maize".
- Generalization of meaning: Upward shift in a taxonomy, e.g., hoover "Hoover vacuum cleaner" → "any type of vacuum cleaner".
- Cohyponymic transfer: Horizontal shift in a taxonomy, e.g., the confusion of mouse and rat in some dialects.
- Antiphrasis: Change based on a contrastive aspect of the concepts, e.g., perfect lady in the sense of "prostitute".
- Auto-antonymy: Change of a word's sense and concept to the complementary opposite, e.g., bad in the slang sense of "good".
- Auto-converse: Lexical expression of a relationship by the two extremes of the respective relationship, e.g., take in the dialectal use as "give".
- Ellipsis: Semantic change based on the contiguity of names, e.g., car "cart" → "automobile", due to the invention of the car.
- Folk-etymology: Semantic change based on the similarity of names, e.g., French contredanse, orig. English country dance.
Forces triggering change
Blank has tried to create a complete list of motivations for semantic change. They can be summarized as:- Linguistic forces
- Psychological forces
- Sociocultural forces
- Cultural/encyclopedic forces
- Fuzziness
- Dominance of the prototype
- Social reasons
- Institutional and non-institutional linguistic pre- and proscriptivism
- Flattery
- Insult
- Disguising language
- Taboo
- Aesthetic-formal reasons
- Communicative-formal reasons
- Wordplay/punning
- Excessive length of words
- Morphological misinterpretation
- Logical-formal reasons
- Desire for plasticity
- Anthropological salience of a concept
- Culture-induced salience of a concept
- Changes in the referents
- Worldview change
- Prestige/fashion
The case of reappropriation
Practical studies
Apart from many individual studies, etymological dictionaries are prominent reference books for finding out about semantic changes.Theoretical studies
Recent overviews have been presented by Blank and. Semantic change had attracted academic discussions already in ancient times. The first major works of modern times were,,,,, and Stephen Ullmann. Studies beyond the analysis of single words have been started with the word-field analyses of, who claimed that every semantic change of a word would also affect all other words in a lexical field. His approach was later refined by. introduced Generative semantics. More recent works including pragmatic and cognitive theories are those in, Dirk Geeraerts, and.As stated above, the most currently used typologies are those by and shown above. Other typologies are listed below.
Typology by Reisig (1839)
ideas for a classification were published posthumously. He resorts to classical rhetorics and distinguishes between- Synecdoche: shifts between part and whole
- Metonymy: shifts between cause and effect
- Metaphor
Typology by Paul (1880)
- Generalization: enlargement of single senses of a word's meaning
- Specialization on a specific part of the contents: reduction of single senses of a word's meaning
- Transfer on a notion linked to the based notion in a spatial, temporal, or causal way
Typology by Darmesteter (1887)
- Metaphor
- Metonymy
- Narrowing of meaning
- Widening of meaning
Typology by Bréal (1899)
- Restriction of sense: change from a general to a special meaning
- Enlargement of sense: change from a special to a general meaning
- Metaphor
- "Thickening" of sense: change from an abstract to a concrete meaning
Typology by Stern (1931)
- Substitution: Change related to the change of an object, of the knowledge referring to the object, of the attitude toward the object, e.g., artillery "engines of war used to throw missiles" → "mounted guns", atom "inseparable smallest physical-chemical element" → "physical-chemical element consisting of electrons", scholasticism "philosophical system of the Middle Ages" → "servile adherence to the methods and teaching of schools"
- Analogy: Change triggered by the change of an associated word, e.g., fast adj. "fixed and rapid" ← faste adv. "fixedly, rapidly")
- Shortening: e.g., periodical ← periodical paper
- Nomination: "the intentional naming of a referent, new or old, with a name that has not previously been used for it", e.g., lion "brave man" ← "lion"
- Regular transfer: a subconscious Nomination
- Permutation: non-intentional shift of one referent to another due to a reinterpretation of a situation, e.g., bead "prayer" → "pearl in a rosary")
- Adequation: Change in the attitude of a concept; distinction from substitution is unclear.
Typology by Ullmann (1957, 1962)
Ullmann distinguishes between nature and consequences of semantic change:- Nature of semantic change
- * Metaphor: change based on a similarity of senses
- * Metonymy: change based on a contiguity of senses
- * Folk-etymology: change based on a similarity of names
- * Ellipsis: change based on a contiguity of names
- Consequences of semantic change
- * Widening of meaning: rise of quantity
- * Narrowing of meaning: loss of quantity
- * Amelioration of meaning: rise of quality
- * Pejoration of meaning: loss of quality