Shatapatha Brahmana


The Shatapatha Brahmana is a commentary on the Śukla Yajurveda. Described as the most complete, systematic, and important of the Brahmanas, it contains detailed explanations of Vedic sacrificial rituals, symbolism, and mythology.
Particularly in its description of sacrificial rituals, the Shatapatha Brahmana provides scientific knowledge of geometry and observational astronomy from the Vedic period.
The Shatapatha Brahmana is also considered to be significant in the development of Vaishnavism as the origin of several Puranic legends and avatars of the RigVedic god Vishnu. Notably, all of them are listed as the first five avatars in the Dashavatara.
There are two versions available of this text. They are the Madhyandina recension and the Kanva recension. This article focuses exclusively on the Madhyandina version of the Shatapatha Brahmana.

Nomenclature

The 'Shatapatha Brahmana' can be loosely translated as 'Brahmana of one hundred paths':
In relation to the Satapatha Brahmana, a reference such as '14.1.2' means 'Kanda 14, Adhyaya 1, Brahmana 2', or in English, 'Book 14, Chapter 1, Explanation 2'. The addition of a fourth digit at the end refers to the verse number.

Date of Origin

states that linguistically, the Satapatha Brahmana belongs to the later part of the Brāhmaṇa period of Vedic Sanskrit. M. Witzel dates this text to the 7th-6th centuries BCE. Jan N. Bremmer dates it to around 700 BCE. J. Eggeling, dates the final, written version of the text to 300 BCE, although stating some elements 'far older, transmitted orally from unknown antiquity'.
B. N. Narahari Achar also notes several other estimations, such as that of S.B. Dixit, D. Pingree, and N. Achar, in relation to a statement in the text that the Krittikas never deviate from the east; Dixit's interpretation of this statement to mean that the Krittikas rise exactly in the east, and calculated that the Krittikas were on the celestial equator at about 3000 BCE, is a subject of debate between the named scholars; Pingree rejects Dixit’s arguments.
S.C. Kak states that a 'conservative chronology places the final form of the Satapatha Brahmana to 1000-800 B.C.E... the other hand, it is accepted that the myths described in the Vedas and the Brahmanas deal with astronomical events of the 4th millennium B.C.E. and earlier'. According to Kak, the Satapatha Brahmana itself contains astronomical references dated by academics such as P.C. Sengupta 'to c. 2100 B.C.E', and references the drying up of the Sarasvati river, believed to have occurred around 1900 B.C.E:
Scholars have extensively rejected Kak's arguments; Witzel criticizes Kak for "faulty reasoning" and taking "a rather dubious datum and us it to reinterpret Vedic linguistic, textual, ritual history while neglect all the other contradictory data." According to Witzel, the Shatapatha Brahmana does not contain precise contemporary astronomical records, but rather only approximate naked-eye observations for ritual concerns which likely reflect oral remembrances of older time periods; furthermore, the same general observations are recorded in the Babylonian MUL.APIN tablets of c. 1000 BCE. The Shatapatha Brahmana contains clear references to the use of iron, so it cannot be dated earlier than c. 1200-1000 BCE, while it reflects cultural, philosophical, and socio-political developments that are later than other Iron Age texts and only slightly earlier than the time of the Buddha.

Content and Recensions

According to the Indira Gandhi National Centre for the Arts, the Satapatha Brahmana survives in two recensions:
The 14 books of the Madhyandina recension can be divided into two major parts. The first 9 books have close textual commentaries, often line by line, of the first 18 books of the corresponding samhita of the Śukla Yajurveda. The remaining 5 books of the Satapatha cover supplementary and ritualistically newer material; the content of the 14th and last book constitutes the Bṛhad-Āraṇyaka Upaniṣad. The IGNCA also provides further structural comparison between the recensions, noting that the 'names of the Kandas also vary between the two and the sequence in which they appear':
KandaMadhyandina No.Kanva No.
Ekapat21
Haviryajna12
Udhari-3
Adhvara34
Graha45
Vajapeya-6
Sava5-
Rajasuya-7
Ukhasambharana68
Hastighata79
Citi810
Sagniciti -11
Sanciti9-
Agnirahasya1012
Astadhyayi1113
Madhyama1214
Asvamedha1315
Pravarghya-16
Brhadaranyaka1417

The IGNCA adds that 'the division of Kandika is more rational in the Kanva text than in the other... The name 'Satapatha', as Eggeling has suggested, might have been based on the number of Adhyayas in the Madhyandina which is exactly one hundred. But the Kanva recension, which has one hundred and four Adhyayas is also known by the same name. In Indian tradition words like 'sata' and 'sahasra', indicating numbers, do not always stand for exact numbers'.

Brihadaranayaka Upanishad

The Brihadaranyaka Upanishad is from the last Kanda of the Kanva recension of the Shatapatha Brahmana. Swami Madhavananda states that this Upanishad is 'the greatest of the Upanishads... not only in extent; but it is also the greatest in respect of its substance and theme. It is the greatest Upanishad in the sense that the illimitable, all-embracing, absolute, self-luminous, blissful reality - the Brhat or Brahman, identical with Atman, constitutes its theme'.

Significance in Science

Astronomy

Kak elaborates that 'the main elements of the astronomy of Vedanga Jyotisa are already contained in Satapatha Brahmana and earlier books'. He adds that Vedic ritual sacrifices described in texts such as the Shatapatha Brahmana are intended to capture 'time in motion', noting some rituals lasted an entire year.
In relation to sacrifice and astronomical phenomena detailed in texts such as the Satapatha Brahmana, N. Aiyangar states the fact that 'the Vedic people had a celestial counterpart of their sacrificial ground is clear', and cites an example of the YajnaVaraha sacrifice in relation to the constellation of Orion. Roy elaborates further on this example, stating that when 'the sun became united with Orion at the vernal equinox... commenced the yearly sacrifice'. The vernal equinox marks the onset of spring, and is celebrated in Indian culture as the Holi festival.
I.G. Pearce states that the Satapatha Brahmana - along with other Vedic texts such as the Vedas, Samhitas, and Tattiriya Samhita - evidences 'the astronomy of the Vedic period which, given very basic measuring devices, gave surprisingly accurate values for various astronomical quantities. These include the relative size of the planets the distance of the earth from the sun, the length of the day, and the length of the year'. A.A. Macdonell adds that the Satapatha in particular is notable as - unlike the Samhitas - in it the Earth was 'expressly called circular '.

Mathematics

In the construction of fire altars used for sacrifices, Kak also notes the importance of the number, configuration, measurements, and patterns of bricks representing factors such as:
Notably, P. N. Sinha states that the number 1,000 represents 'the thousand Maha yugas of every Kalpa', illustrated by the 1,000 hoods of the Naga Vasuki/Ananta on which the Earth is supported. I.G. Pearce, F. Staal, and D.M. Knipe all agree with Kak, repeating that the number, layering, size, and configuration of bricks to construct sacrificial altars - real and symbolic - as detailed in texts such as the Satapatha Brahmana had numerous rules, with Staal adding - in relation to similarities with ancient Greek, Babylonian, and Chinese geometry:
Noting that Kak also provides three values for Pi from the Satapatha Brahmana, Pearce elaborates on the advancement of Vedic mathematics in general in relation to the construction of sacrificial altars:
C.S. Seshadri states 'Familiarity with the four fundamental operations of arithmetic is evidence in Vedic Literature like the Satapatha Brahmana, the Taittiriya Samhita and even the Rg-Veda. A passage from the ancient Satapatha Brahmana gives all divisors of 720'. This passage is noted by Kak as having 'exactly 15 factors '. The significance of this can be seen in the following verses of that passage:

Significance in Vaishnavism

, A.B. Keith, J. Roy, J. Dowson, W.J. Wilkins, S. Ghose, M.L. Varadpande, N Aiyangar, and D.A. Soifer all state that several avatars and associated Puranic legends of Vishnu either originate or at least were significantly developed in the Satapatha Brahmana. Notably, all constitute the first five avatars listed in the Dashavatara, the ten principal avatars of Vishnu.

Vishnu

Sofia states ''developments that occur in the general character of Visnu in the Brahmana literature have far-reaching influence on the growth and moulding of avataric Visnu... Probably the single most important development, which is first found in the Brahmanas and exerts the most influence over all other factors, is the identification of Vishnu with the sacrifice'. Vishnu is explicitly stated to be sacrifice repeatedly throughout the Shatapatha Brahmana.

Kanda 14, Adhyaya 1, Brahmana 1

in SB 14.1.1, the story given is that 'the gods Agni, Indra, Soma, Makha, Vishnu, and the , except the two Asvins, performed a sacrificial session', which was first attained by Vishnu, hence 'he became the most excellent of the gods'. Upadika ants then agreed with the other gods to gnaw at the bowstring of Vishnu while He rested his head on the Bow, in exchange for the boon to 'find water even in the desert'. The Gharma is named after the sound of Vishnu's head hitting the ground, and 'inasmuch as he stretched out on the ground, therefrom the Pravargya '. The body of Vishnu is encompassed by Indra, who possessed by His glory 'became Makhavat '. Vishnu is then divided into three parts, with Agni receiving the first portion, Indra the second portion, and the remaining Visvedevas the third portion.

Kurma

As related in the main article, Kurma, the tortoise avatar of Vishnu, is inextricably linked in the Puranas with the legend of the churning of the Ocean of Milk, referred to as the Samudra manthan. The tortoise avatar is also synonymous with Akupara, the 'world-turtle' supporting the Earth, as well as the Saptarishi sage, Kasyapa. Accounts from the Shatapatha Brahmana are stated by Varadpande to be the seed of Kurma.
Eggeling adds that the 'kapalas are usually arranged in such a manner as to produce a fancied resemblance to the shell of the tortoise, which is a symbol of the sky, as the tortoise itself represents the universe... In the same way the term kapala, in the singular, is occasionally applied to the skull, as well as to the upper and the lower case of the tortoise, e.g. Sat Br. VII, 5, 1, 2 .'

Kanda 1, Adhyaya 6, Brahmana 2

Macdonell also notes another instance in the Taittiriya Samhita, where Prajapati assigns sacrifices for the gods and places the oblation within himself, before Risis arrive at the sacrifice and 'the sacrificial cake is said to become a tortoise'.

Kanda 6, Adhyaya 1, Brahmana 1

is female. Used in ritual sacrifices, so is the sacrificial altar, the spade, and the firepan. The principle of gender is pervasive throughout.

Kanda 7, Adhyaya 5, Brahmana 1

Originally a form of Prajapati, the creator-god, the tortoise is thus clearly and directly linked with Vedic ritual sacrifice, the sun, and with Kasyapa as a creator. The tortoise is also stated to represent the three worlds. SB 5.1.3.9-10 states 'Pragapati represents productiveness... the male means productiveness'. SB 14.1.1, which relates the story of Vishnu becoming the greatest of the gods at a sacrifice of the gods before being decapitated by His bow, states the head of Vishnu became the sun when it fell.

Matsya

As related in the main article, Matsya, the fish avatar of Vishnu, appears to Manu to warn him of an impending deluge. After being reared by and growing to an enormous size, Matsya then guides Manu's ship to safety at the peak of a mountain, where Manu re-establishes life through the performance of Vedic sacrificial rites. In Puranic accounts, Matsya also rescues the Vedas taken under the water, after they were stolen from Brahma by the Asura called Hayagriva. From the Shatapatha Brahmana:
Aiyangar explains that, in relation to the RigVeda, 'Sacrifice is metaphorically called Ship and as Manu means man, the thinker, the story seems to be a parable of the Ship of Sacrifice being the means for man's crossing the seas of his duritas, sins, and troubles'. SB 13.4.3.12 also mentions King Matsya Sammada, whose 'people are the water-dwellers... both fish and fishermen... it is these he instructs; - 'the Itihasa is the Veda'.'

Narasimha

As related in the main article, Narasimha destroyed the Asura-King Hiranyakashipu, who after undertaking severe penances, was granted a boon by Brahma that he could not be killed inside or outside any residence, on the ground or in the sky, or by any god, human, animal, or weapon. The man-lion avatar of Vishnu thus put the demon on His lap and killed him with claws. This concept is similar to that found in the Shatapatha brahmana :
D.A. Soifer states that 'Brahmana literature yields what must be considered as the prototype of that myth, the Indra-Namuchi myth', adding that other academics such as Devasthali concur that although elements of the Namuchi legend are 'scattered throughout Brahmana literature ', the fullest version is in the Satapatha Brahmana. Indra defeating Namuchi itself originates from the RigVeda :

Vamana

As related in the main article, Vamana, the dwarf avatar of Vishnu, took back the three worlds from the Asura king Bali in three steps.

Kanda I, Adhyaya 2, Brahmana 5

Eggeling notes that in the Shatapatha Brahmana, 'we have here the germ of the Dwarf incarnation of Vishnu'. The difference in this account - aside from no mention of Bali - is that instead of gaining the earth by footsteps, it is gained by as much as Vamana can lie upon as a sacrifice. That this legend developed into Vamana taking three steps, as noted by Aiyangar, originates from the three strides of Vishnu covering the three words in the RigVeda. Notably, the three steps of Vishnu are mentioned throughout the Satapatha Brahmana as part of the sacrificial rituals described.

Kanda 6, Adhyaya 7, Brahmana 4

SB 6.7.4.8 also explains why the strides of Vishnu are performed in rituals:

Varaha

As related in the main article, Varaha - also referred to as Yajna-Varaha - is in Puranic literature explicitly stated to be the symbolic embodiment of sacrifice. Stated in the Nirukta to be synonymous with clouds and rain, Varaha is most commonly associated with the legend of lifting the Earth out of the Cosmic Waters, and in various accounts also battles and defeats the Asura Hiranyaksa to do so.

Kanda 14, Adhyaya 1, Brahmana 2

The context of this verse is in relation to a Pravargya ritual, where clay/earth is dug up, fashioned or 'spread out' into Mahâvîra pots, and baked in a fire altar. S. Ghose states that the 'first direct idea of the boar as an incarnation of Vishnu performing the specific task of rescuing the earth is mentioned in the Satapatha Brahmana... the nucleus of the story of the god rescuing the earth in the boar-shape is found here'. A.B. Keith states that the boar 'is called Emusa from its epithet emusa, fierce, in the RigVeda'. However, as this name occurs only once in the RigVeda, the ascribed meaning cannot be verified:

Kanda 5, Adhyaya 4, Brahmana 3

The form of a boar was produced from a sacrificial oblation of the gods, and boars share the essence of cattle. Eggeling notes that in this ceremony, the King wears boar-boots to engage in a mock-battle with a Raganya, stated to be 'Varuna's consecration; and the Earth is afraid of him'. This ritual therefore seems to be significant as the mock-battle between the King and the Raganya parallels the battle between Varaha with the Asura Hiranyaksa in various Puranic accounts of the Earth being saved and lifted out of the waters.

Manuscripts and Translations

All English translations of the Madhyandina School recension are by Julius Eggeling in five volumes. The English translation of the Kanva School recension by W.E. Caland in 3 volumes has not been found or listed; another English translation by the Indira Gandhi National Centre for the Arts in at least seven volumes has been listed.
SanskritSanskrit-English TransliterationEnglish
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