Sigma-2 receptor
The sigma-2 receptor is a sigma receptor subtype that has attracted attention due to its involvement in diseases such as cancer and neurological diseases. It is currently under investigation for its potential diagnostic and therapeutic uses.
Although the sigma-2 receptor was identified as a separate pharmacological entity from the sigma-1 receptor in 1990, the gene that codes for the receptor was identified as TMEM97 only in 2016. TMEM97 was shown to regulate the cholesterol transporter NPC1 and to be involved in cholesterol homeostasis. The sigma-2 receptor is a four-pass transmembrane protein located in the endoplasmic reticulum. It has been found to play a role in both hormone signaling and calcium signaling, in neuronal signaling, in cell proliferation and death, and in binding of antipsychotics.
Classification
The sigma-2 receptor is located in the lipid raft. The sigma-2 receptor is found in several areas of the brain, including high densities in the cerebellum, motor cortex, hippocampus, and substantia nigra. It is also highly expressed in the lungs, liver, and kidneys.Function
The sigma-2 receptor takes part in a number of normal-function roles, including cell proliferation, non-neuronal, and neuronal signaling. Much of sigma-2 receptor function relies on signaling cascades. The receptor's interaction with EGFR and PGRMC1 proteins allow for sigma-2 receptors to play diverse roles within cell through Ras, PLC, and PI3K singaling.Non-neuronal signaling
Binding of a number of hormones and steroids, including testosterone, progesterone, and cholesterol, has been found to occur with sigma-2 receptors, though in some cases with lower affinity than to the sigma-1 receptor. Signaling caused by this binding is thought to occur via a calcium secondary messenger and calcium-dependent phosphorylation, and in association with sphingolipids following endoplasmic reticulum release of calcium. Known effects include decrease of expression of effectors in the mTOR pathway, and suppression of cyclin D1 and PARP-1.Neuronal signaling
Signaling action in neurons by sigma-2 receptors and their associated ligands results in modulation of action potential firing by regulation of calcium and potassium channels. They also are involved in synaptic vesicular release and modulation of dopamine, serotonin, and glutamate, with activation and increase of the dopaminergic, serotonergic, and noradrenergic activity of neurons.Cell proliferation
Sigma-2 receptors have been found to be highly expressed in proliferating cells, including tumor cells, and to play a role in the differentiation, morphology, and survival of those cells. By interacting with EGFR membrane proteins sigma-2 receptors play a role in the regulation of signals further downstream such as PKC and RAF. Both PKC and Raf kinase up regulate transcription and cell proliferation.Ligands
Ligands of the sigma-2 receptor are exogenous and internalized by endocytosis, and can act as either agonists or antagonists. They can typically be classified into four groups, which are structurally related. It is not entirely understood how binding to the sigma-2 receptor occurs. Proposed models commonly include one small and one bulky hydrophobic pocket, electrostatic hydrogen interactions, and less commonly a third hydrophobic pocket.| Class Name | Common compounds |
| 6,7-Dimethoxytetrahydroisoquinoline analogs | RHM-4, ISO-1, ISO-2 |
| Tropane and granatane analogs | BIMU-1, SW107, SW116, SW120 |
| Indole analogs | Siramesine, Ibogaine |
| Cyclohexylpiperazine analogs | PB28, F281 |
A study of the four groups has revealed that a basic nitrogen and at least one hydrophobic moiety is needed to bind a sigma-2 receptor. In addition, there are molecular characteristics that increase the selectivity for sigma-2 receptors, which include bulky hydrophobic regions, nitrogen-carboxylic interaction, and additional basic nitrogens.
Diagnostic use
Sigma-2 receptors are highly expressed breast, ovarian, lung cancers, brain, bladder, colon cancers, and melanoma. This novelty makes them a valuable biomarker for identifying cancerous tissues. Furthermore, studies have shown that they are more highly expressed in malignant tumors than dormant tumors.Exogenous sigma-2 receptor ligands have been altered to be neuronal-tracers, used to map cells and their connections. These tracers have high selectivity and affinity for sigma-2 receptors, and high lipophilicity, making them ideal for usage in the brain. Because sigma-2 receptors are highly expressed in tumor cells and are part of the cell proliferation mechanism, PET scans using sigma-2 targeted tracers can reveal if a tumor is proliferating and what its growth rate is.
Therapeutic use
Neuropsychiatric
Due to the binding capabilities of antipsychotic drugs and various neurotransmitters associated with mood, the sigma-2 receptor is a viable target for therapies related to neuropsychiatric disorders and modulation of emotional response. It is thought to be involved in the pathophysiology of schizophrenia, and sigma-2 receptors have been shown to be less abundant in schizophrenic patients. Additionally, PCP, which is an NMDA antagonist, can induce schizophrenia, while sigma-2 receptor activation has been shown to antagonize effects of PCP, implying antipsychotic capabilities. Sigma receptors are a potential target for treatment of dystonia, given high densities in affected regions of the brain. Anti-ischemics ifenprodil and eliprodil, the binding of which increases blood flow, have also shown affinity to sigma receptors.In experimental trials in mice and rats, the sigma-2 receptor ligand siramesine caused reduced anxiety and displayed antidepressant capabilities, while other studies have shown inhibition of selective sigma receptor radioligands by antidepressants, in the mouse and rat brain.