Slovene grammar


The following is an overview of the grammar of the Slovene language.

Common phonological changes

As in most other Slavic languages, changes to consonants and vowels often occur between related forms of words. Most of these can be traced back to changes that occurred in the ancestral Proto-Slavic language. Over time, many of the original changes have been reversed or levelled out.

Consonant alternations

The following table gives an overview of the above changes:
Normalbpvmdtszgkh
First palatalizationbpvmdtszžčš
Second palatalizationbpvmdtszzcs
Iotationbljpljvljmljjčšžžčš

These changes are very similar to those found in the related Serbo-Croatian language, but in iotation, Slovene j corresponding to Serbo-Croatian đ, and č with ć.

Hard and soft stems

Word stems that end in c, č, š, ž or j are called "soft" stems, while the remainder are "hard". When endings begin with -o-, this vowel usually becomes -e- after a soft stem; this is called "preglas" in Slovene. This happens in many noun and adjective declensions, and also in some verbs. For example, the instrumental singular form of korak "step" is korakom, while for stric "uncle" it is stricem.
There are also some instances where the vowel stays as o, such as the accusative singular of feminine [|nouns]. These instances can be traced back to an earlier nasal vowel ǫ in Proto-Slavic, which did not undergo this change.

Fill vowel

When certain hard-to-pronounce consonant clusters occur word-finally, an additional fill vowel is inserted before the last consonant of the word to break up the cluster. This typically happens where there is no ending, like in the nominative singular, or the genitive dual and plural. The fill vowel is usually a schwa. For example, the noun igra "game" has the genitive plural form iger, not igr.
If the last consonant is j, then i is used as the fill vowel instead. For example, ladja "boat" has the genitive plural ladij. However, if the stem ends in lj, nj or rj, then the fill vowel is the normal e and is inserted before both consonants. The noun ogenj "fire", for example, loses the fill vowel in the genitive singular form ognja.
There are a few cases where the fill vowel is instead a stressed a. These are irregular and must simply be memorized. An example is ovca "sheep", which is ovac in the genitive plural, not ovec.

Noun

Nouns are marked for case and number. There are 6 cases and 3 numbers. Slovenian nouns are divided into 3 genders. Each gender has different declension patterns, for a total of 10 declension forms.

Adjective

The adjective expresses three main ideas: quality, relation and possession.
Adjectives in Slovenian can serve in three syntactical functions: left attributes, predicate articles and predicate attributes.
The majority of adjectives are of the first kind. These express any qualities and properties of personal and impersonal nouns. Such adjectives are gradable either in the two- or three-step comparison, depending if they are relative to another, opposite adjective or not. vs bolan ).
Relational adjectives express type, class or numerical sequence of a noun. For instance: kemijska in fizikalna sprememba, fotografski aparat.
Possessive pronouns define possession, ownership or belonging. For example: barvin sijaj, Karmenina torbica, delavska halja.
Some adjectives expressing properties next to masculine nouns imply definiteness or indefiniteness of nouns.
For an exactly defined noun or a specific type thereof:
For nouns not exactly defined, being mentioned for the first time or generic:
Adjectives ending in -i and all possessive pronouns do not have special indefinite forms. There are two special adjectives which have special definite and indefinite forms for all genders and all cases, namely majhen and velik :
The adjective matches the subject or the predicate article to which it is ascribed. If it describes two singular nouns or one dual noun, the adjective should be in the dual. If it describes a plural or one singular and one non-singular noun, the adjective should be in the plural. Although gender should match the group, sometimes the gender of the adjacent noun is used with the appropriate grammatical number. For declension patterns of adjectives, see the section on nouns. Some adjectives, however, are never declined, for example bež, poceni, roza, super, seksi, and some other loanwords.
Possessive adjectives for masculine and neuter possessed nouns add -ov to the possessive noun. Feminine possessed nouns always take -in. Possessive nouns can include proper names, in which case they are written capitalised.
Negative adjectives are formed by prefixing the negative ne-, which is almost always a proper form even though sometimes, a Latin prefix is an alternative.
The comparative is formed by adding the ending -ši, -ejši or -ji to an adjective, or using the word bolj in front of an adjective in case of stressing and also when the adjective in question cannot be formed by adding an ending, such as when dealing with colours, or when the adjective ends in such a sound that it would be difficult to add the appropriate ending:
The superlative is formed by prepending the word naj directly in front of the comparative, whether it comprises one or two words.
In Slovenian, the verbs are conjugated for 3 persons and 3 numbers. There are 4 tenses, 3 moods and 2 voices. Verbs also have 4 participles and 2 verbal nouns. Not all combinations of the above are possible for every case.

Gerund

A gerund is a noun formed from a verb, designating an action or a state. The standard substantive in Slovenian ends in -anje or -enje:
For example:

Adverb

The adverb in Slovene is always the same as the singular neuter form of any given adjective if derived from an adjective.
  1. "Dan je bil lep." - masculine adjective
  2. "Bilo je lepo." - neuter adjective
—> "Imeli smo se lepo."
—> "Govorili so lepo."
Other types of adverb are derived from nouns, jeseni ), prepositional constructions , pozimi, potem ), verbs, skrivoma, mimogrede ) or numerals.
In essence, there are four main types of adverb: adverbs of time, večno ), adverbs of place, adverbs of manner, povsem ) and adverbs of cause and reason.
Adverbs are, much like adjectives, normally gradable.
s can replace a noun in a sentence; this is, as opposed to, say, an adjective or an adverb.

Personal pronouns

A personal pronoun denotes the speaker, the addressee or a third person. Personal pronouns in Slovene are inflected in a somewhat unusual way, for there are many different forms for each of the pronouns.
Several of the pronouns have unstressed and clitic forms that are unstressed, and may attach to another word. For example:
The nominative forms of personal pronouns are not used in neutral sentences, only when emphasizing the subject, especially so for the first person singular jaz "I". This is because unlike in English, the form of the verb gives all applicable information such as the gender, grammatical number and person by itself.
The reflexive pronoun begins with s- and is used to refer back to the subject, or to some other word.
For example:
  • Umivam si roke. "I am washing my hands."
  • Umivate si roke. "You are washing your hands."
  • Umivam se. "I am washing myself."
  • Umivate se. "You are washing yourselves."
Similarly as in English, the reflexive pronoun can sometimes be replaced by the reciprocal phrase drug drugega "each other, one another". Thus:
The accusative se can bind with prepositional words just like other personal pronouns:
Other cases and examples:
The interrogative pronouns introduce direct and indirect questions. There are two nominative forms: kdo "who" and kaj "what".
The substantival relative pronoun is derived from the interrogative by adding -r: kdor "who, that", kar "which, that".
The negative pronoun is derived from the interrogative as well, and starts with ni-: nihče "nobody, anybody", nič "nothing, anything".
A negative pronoun demands a negative predicate, resulting in the so-called double negation:
The universal pronouns are vsakdo "everyone" and vse "everything, all".
Vsak "each, every" is an adjective that can function as a pronoun. Also in this category are vsakateri and vsakteri, both meaning "everyone", which are old-fashioned and not used in modern language.

Indefinite pronouns

The indefinite pronoun is derived from the interrogative, and starts with ne-: nekdo "someone, anyone", nekaj "something, anything". It refers to an unknown or deliberately untold person or object. The inflection follows the pattern of kdo and kaj.
The interrogatives kdo and kaj, can also refer to any unspecified person or object, or one that can be chosen at will.
The relative indefinite pronouns are kdorkoli or kdor koli and karkoli or kar koli. The meaning conveyed is very similar to the unspecified pronoun. The inflexion follows the pattern of the relative pronoun with -koli or koli appended. The space, as shown, is optional, but for sake of consistency, once one method has been adopted, one should not use the other.
The manifold pronouns are marsikdo "many " and marsikaj "many ". The inflexion follows the basic pattern of kdo and kaj. Although these pronouns refer to multiple people or things, they are grammatically singular. In addition to marsi-, other prefixes are possible, such as redko-, mnogo- and malo-.

Possessive determiners

These all inflect as regular adjectives.
Example sentences:
The reflexive determiner svoj is used much as the reflexive pronoun is used, to point back to the subject or another word.
The reflexive possessive and 'normal' possessive pronouns make some ambiguous English sentences perfectly clear in Slovene. The sentence "She has taken her towel into the bathroom" can be translated into the following two ways:
Quantitative adverbial pronouns are non-inflected at all times. All other pronouns are normally inflected.
Examples:
An interjection is ordinarily an uninflected word expressing mental states, encouragement towards actions, greetings or mocking of sounds and voices.
Interjections may be inflected; however, in spite of the words' being the same, such use calls for a different word class, this most frequently being nouns.

Case use

The nominative case defines a subject of a sentence; all other cases define an object as either direct or indirect.
CaseSlovene 'English
NominativeMoj stol je v sobiMy chair is in the room
GenitiveMojega stola ni v sobiMy chair is not in the room
GenitiveKošček papirja mi je ostal v dlaniA piece of paper remained in my palm
GenitiveTipkovnica računalnika je vhodna enotaA computer’s keyboard is an input device
DativeBeraču je dal denarHe gave money to a beggar
AccusativeVidim zvezdeI see the stars
LocativeMnogo je rečenega o novem sodnikuA lot is being said about the new judge
InstrumentalNa sprehod grem s svojim psomI am going for a walk with my dog'''

Use of number

There are four types of inflexion related to the grammatical number in Slovene. The future tense is here used to demonstrate its usage. The future tense is formed with the verb to be in the future tense plus the l-participle of the full lexical verb. For example, a table of the English expression "I will see" with gender for he and she without it can be written as:
SingularDual Plural
I will seeWe will seeWe will see
You will seeYou will seeYou will see
He/She will seeThey will seeThey will see

can be translated into Slovene as:
Singular with M/F genderDual with M/F genderPlural with M/F gender
Jaz bom videl/Jaz bom videlaMidva bova videla/Midve bova videliMi bomo videli/Me bomo videle
Ti boš videl/Ti boš videlaVidva bosta videla/Vidve bosta videliVi boste videli/Ve boste videle
On bo videl/Ona bo videlaOna bosta videla/Oni bosta videliOni bodo videli/One bodo videle

Slovene has singular and plural but also has the rare dual grammatical number, a separate form of every noun used when there are only two such items. Dual grammatical number, when an ambiguity between dual and plural forms exists, can be rendered into other languages in various ways; comparatively often, there is no ambiguity, and the dual is extraneous.. Dual grammatical number was a feature of the Proto-Slavic language which has been retained by Slovene. An example of dual grammatical number would be "onadva sta", which refers to two objects or subjects in the masculine gender or "onidve sta", which refers to the same concept but in the feminine gender. However "oni so" refers to more than two objects or subjects in the masculine gender while "one so" does the same the feminine gender. Dual grammatical number is also preserved in gender. The dual is used consistently in Slovene.
The first phrase sounds much more romantic and intimate to a Slovene, a style that is impossible to translate into English, which lacks the dual grammatical number.

Sentence

Constituents

In a sentence, there can be only four types of constituent, the order of which is seldom crucial:
By changing the order, the stressed part changes. It may also serve to create poetic sentiment, common in poetry.

Free sentence

Compound sentence

Incomplete sentence

This is a sentence with no predicate.

Inserted sentence

Accompanying sentence and direct speech

See also the section on [|inverted commas].

Punctuation

marks are one or two part graphical marks used in writing, denoting tonal progress, pauses, sentence type, abbreviations, et cetera.
Marks used in Slovene include full stops, question marks, exclamation marks, commas, semicolons, colons, dashes, hyphens, ellipses, different types of inverted commas and quotation marks, brackets , as well as apostrophes, solidi, equal signs, and so forth.