Soil pH
Soil pH is a measure of the acidity or basicity of a soil. pH is defined as the negative logarithm of the activity of hydronium ions in a solution. In soils, it is measured in a slurry of soil mixed with water, and normally falls between 3 and 10, with 7 being neutral. Acid soils have a pH below 7 and alkaline soils have a pH above 7. Ultra-acidic soils and very strongly alkaline soils are rare.
Soil pH is considered a master variable in soils as it affects many chemical processes. It specifically affects plant nutrient availability by controlling the chemical forms of the different nutrients and influencing the chemical reactions they undergo. The optimum pH range for most plants is between 5.5 and 7.5; however, many plants have adapted to thrive at pH values outside this range.
Classification of soil pH ranges
The United States Department of Agriculture Natural Resources Conservation Service classifies soil pH ranges as follows:| Denomination | pH range |
| Ultra acidic | < 3.5 |
| Extremely acidic | 3.5–4.4 |
| Very strongly acidic | 4.5–5.0 |
| Strongly acidic | 5.1–5.5 |
| Moderately acidic | 5.6–6.0 |
| Slightly acidic | 6.1–6.5 |
| Neutral | 6.6–7.3 |
| Slightly alkaline | 7.4–7.8 |
| Moderately alkaline | 7.9–8.4 |
| Strongly alkaline | 8.5–9.0 |
| Very strongly alkaline | > 9.0 |
Determining pH
Methods of determining pH include:- Observation of soil profile: Certain profile characteristics can be indicators of either acid, saline, or sodic conditions. Examples are:
- *Poor incorporation of the organic surface layer with the underlying mineral layer – this can indicate strongly acidic soils;
- *The classic podzol horizon sequence, since podzols are strongly acidic: in these soils, a pale eluvial horizon lies under the organic surface layer and overlies a dark B horizon;
- *Presence of a caliche layer indicates the presence of calcium carbonates, which are present in alkaline conditions;
- *Columnar structure can be an indicator of sodic condition.
- Observation of predominant flora. Calcifuge plants include Erica, Rhododendron and nearly all other Ericaceae species, many birch, foxglove, gorse, and Scots Pine. Calcicole plants include ash trees, honeysuckle, Buddleja, dogwoods, lilac and Clematis species.
- Use of an inexpensive pH testing kit, where in a small sample of soil is mixed with indicator solution which changes colour according to the acidity.
- Use of litmus paper. A small sample of soil is mixed with distilled water, into which a strip of litmus paper is inserted. If the soil is acidic the paper turns red, if basic, blue.
- Use of a commercially available electronic pH meter, in which a glass or solid-state electrode is inserted into moistened soil or a mixture of soil and water; the pH is usually read on a digital display screen.
- Recently, spectrophotometric methods have been developed to measure soil pH involving addition of an indicator dye to the soil extract. These compared well to glass electrode measurements but offer substantial advantages such as lack of drift, liquid junction and suspension effects
Factors affecting soil pH
The pH of a natural soil depends on the mineral composition of the parent material of the soil, and the weathering reactions undergone by that parent material. In warm, humid environments, soil acidification occurs over time as the products of weathering are leached by water moving laterally or downwards through the soil. In dry climates, however, soil weathering and leaching are less intense and soil pH is often neutral or alkaline.Effect of soil pH on plant growth
Acid soils
Plants grown in acid soils can experience a variety of stresses including aluminium , hydrogen , and/or manganese toxicity, as well as nutrient deficiencies of calcium and magnesium .Aluminium toxicity is the most widespread problem in acid soils. Aluminium is present in all soils, but dissolved Al3+ is toxic to plants; Al3+ is most soluble at low pH; above pH 5.0, there is little Al in soluble form in most soils. Aluminium is not a plant nutrient, and as such, is not actively taken up by the plants, but enters plant roots passively through osmosis. Aluminium inhibits root growth; lateral roots and root tips become thickened and roots lack fine branching; root tips may turn brown. In the root, the initial effect of Al3+ is the inhibition of the expansion of the cells of the rhizodermis, leading to their rupture; thereafter it is known to interfere with many physiological processes including the uptake and transport of calcium and other essential nutrients, cell division, cell wall formation, and enzyme activity.
Proton stress can also limit plant growth. The proton pump, H+-ATPase, of the plasmalemma of root cells works to maintain the near-neutral pH of their cytoplasm. A high proton activity in the external growth medium overcomes the capacity of the cell to maintain the cytoplasmic pH and growth shuts down.
In soils with a high content of manganese-containing minerals, Mn toxicity can become a problem at pH 5.6 and lower. Manganese, like aluminium, becomes increasingly soluble as pH drops, and Mn toxicity symptoms can be seen at pH levels below 5.6. Manganese is an essential plant nutrient, so plants transport Mn into leaves. Classic symptoms of Mn toxicity are crinkling or cupping of leaves.
Nutrient availability in relation to soil pH
Soil pH affects the availability of some plant nutrients:As discussed above, aluminium toxicity has direct effects on plant growth; however, by limiting root growth, it also reduces the availability of plant nutrients. Because roots are damaged, nutrient uptake is reduced, and deficiencies of the macronutrients are frequently encountered in very strongly acidic to ultra-acidic soils.
Molybdenum availability is increased at higher pH; this is because the molybdate ion is more strongly sorbed by clay particles at lower pH.
Zinc, iron, copper and manganese show decreased availability at higher pH.
The effect of pH on phosphorus availability varies considerably, depending on soil conditions and the crop in question. The prevailing view in the 1940s and 1950s was that P availability was maximized near neutrality, and decreased at higher and lower pH. Interactions of phosphorus with pH in the moderately to slightly acidic range are, however, far more complex than is suggested by this view. Laboratory tests, glasshouse trials and field trials have indicated that increases in pH within this range may increase, decrease, or have no effect on P availability to plants.
Water availability in relation to soil pH
Strongly alkaline soils are sodic and dispersive, with slow infiltration, low hydraulic conductivity and poor available water capacity. Plant growth is severely restricted because aeration is poor when the soil is wet; in dry conditions, plant-available water is rapidly depleted and the soils become hard and cloddy.Many strongly acidic soils, on the other hand, have strong aggregation, good internal drainage, and good water-holding characteristics. However, for many plant species, aluminium toxicity severely limits root growth, and moisture stress can occur even when the soil is relatively moist.
Plant pH preferences
In general terms, different plant species are adapted to soils of different pH ranges. For many species, the suitable soil pH range is fairly well known. Online databases of plant characteristics, such USDA PLANTS and Plants for a Future can be used to look up the suitable soil pH range of a wide range of plants. Documents like Ellenberg's indicator values for British plants can also be consulted.However, a plant may be intolerant of a particular pH in some soils as a result of a particular mechanism, and that mechanism may not apply in other soils. For example, a soil low in molybdenum may not be suitable for soybean plants at pH 5.5, but soils with sufficient molybdenum allow optimal growth at that pH. Similarly, some calcifuges can tolerate calcareous soils if sufficient phosphorus is supplied. Another confounding factor is that different varieties of the same species often have different suitable soil pH ranges. Plant breeders can use this to breed varieties that can tolerate conditions that are otherwise considered unsuitable for that species – examples are projects to breed aluminium-tolerant and manganese-tolerant varieties of cereal crops for food production in strongly acidic soils.
The table below gives suitable soil pH ranges for some widely cultivated plants as found in the USDA PLANTS Database. Some species tolerate only a narrow range in soil pH, whereas others tolerate a very wide pH range.
| Scientific name | Common name | pH | pH |
| Vetiveria zizanioides | vetivergrass | 3.0 | 8.0 |
| Pinus rigida | pitch pine | 3.5 | 5.1 |
| Rubus chamaemorus | cloudberry | 4.0 | 5.2 |
| Ananas comosus | pineapple | 4.0 | 6.0 |
| Coffea arabica | Arabian coffee | 4.0 | 7.5 |
| Rhododendron arborescens | smooth azalea | 4.2 | 5.7 |
| Pinus radiata | Monterey pine | 4.5 | 5.2 |
| Carya illinoinensis | pecan | 4.5 | 7.5 |
| Tamarindus indica | tamarind | 4.5 | 8.0 |
| Vaccinium corymbosum | highbush blueberry | 4.7 | 7.5 |
| Manihot esculenta | cassava | 5.0 | 5.5 |
| Morus alba | white mulberry | 5.0 | 7.0 |
| Malus | apple | 5.0 | 7.5 |
| Pinus sylvestris | Scots pine | 5.0 | 7.5 |
| Carica papaya | papaya | 5.0 | 8.0 |
| Cajanus cajan | pigeonpea | 5.0 | 8.3 |
| Pyrus communis | common pear | 5.2 | 6.7 |
| Solanum lycopersicum | garden tomato | 5.5 | 7.0 |
| Psidium guajava | guava | 5.5 | 7.0 |
| Nerium oleander | oleander | 5.5 | 7.8 |
| Punica granatum | pomegranate | 6.0 | 6.9 |
| Viola sororia | common blue violet | 6.0 | 7.8 |
| Caragana arborescens | Siberian peashrub | 6.0 | 9.0 |
| Cotoneaster integerrimus | cotoneaster | 6.8 | 8.7 |
| Opuntia ficus-indica | Barbary fig | 7.0 | 8.5 |
Changing soil pH
Increasing pH of acidic soil
Finely ground agricultural lime is often applied to acid soils to increase soil pH. The amount of limestone or chalk needed to change pH is determined by the mesh size of the lime and the buffering capacity of the soil. A high mesh size indicates a finely ground lime that will react quickly with soil acidity. The buffering capacity of a soil depends on the clay content of the soil, the type of clay, and the amount of organic matter present, and may be related to the soil cation exchange capacity. Soils with high clay content will have a higher buffering capacity than soils with little clay, and soils with high organic matter will have a higher buffering capacity than those with low organic matter. Soils with higher buffering capacity require a greater amount of lime to achieve an equivalent change in pH.Amendments other than agricultural lime that can be used to increase the pH of soil include wood ash, industrial calcium oxide, magnesium oxide, basic slag, and oyster shells. These products increase the pH of soils through various acid-base reactions. Calcium silicate neutralizes active acidity in the soil by reacting with H+ ions to form monosilicic acid, a neutral solute.
Decreasing the pH of alkaline soil
The pH of an alkaline soil can be reduced by adding acidifying agents or acidic organic materials. Elemental sulfur has been used at application rates of 300–500 kg/ha – it slowly oxidizes in soil to form sulfuric acid. Acidifying fertilizers, such as ammonium sulfate, ammonium nitrate and urea, can help to reduce the pH of a soil because ammonium oxidises to form nitric acid. Acidifying organic materials include peat or sphagnum peat moss.However, in high-pH soils with a high calcium carbonate content, it can be very costly and/or ineffective to attempt to reduce the pH with acids. In such cases, it is often more efficient to add phosphorus, iron, manganese, copper and/or zinc instead, because deficiencies of these nutrients are the most common reasons for poor plant growth in calcareous soils.