Solar energetic particles


Solar energetic particles are high-energy particles coming from the Sun. They were first observed in the early 1940s. They consist of protons, electrons and HZE ions with energy ranging from a few tens of keV to many GeV. They are of particular interest and importance because they can endanger life in outer space.
Solar energetic particles can originate either from a solar-flare site or by shock waves associated with coronal mass ejections. However, only about 1% of CMEs produce strong SEP events.
SEPs are also of interest because they provide a good sample of solar material. Despite the nuclear fusion occurring in the core, the majority of solar material is representative of the material that formed the solar system. By studying SEP's isotopic composition, scientists can indirectly measure the material that formed the solar system.
Two main mechanisms of acceleration are possible: diffusive shock acceleration or the shock-drift mechanism. SEPs can be accelerated to energies of several tens of MeV within 5–10 solar radii and can reach Earth in a few minutes in extreme cases. This makes prediction and warning of SEP events quite challenging.