Tai languages


The Tai or Zhuang–Tai languages, are a branch of the Kra–Dai language family. The Tai languages include the most widely spoken of the Tai–Kadai languages, including Standard Thai or Siamese, the national language of Thailand; Lao or Laotian, the national language of Laos; Myanmar's Shan language; and Zhuang, a major language in the Southern Chinese province of Guangxi.

Name

Cognates with the name Tai are used by speakers of many Tai languages. The term Tai is now well-established as the generic name in English. In his book The Tai-Kadai Languages Anthony Diller claims that Lao scholars he has met are not pleased with Lao being regarded as a Tai language. For some, Thai should instead be considered a member of the Lao language family. One or more Ancient Chinese characters for 'Lao' may be cited in support of this alternative appellation. Some scholars including Benedict, have used Thai to refer to a wider grouping and one sees designations like proto-Thai and Austro-Thai in earlier works. In the institutional context in Thailand, and occasionally elsewhere, sometimes Tai is used to indicate varieties in the language family not spoken in Thailand or spoken there only as the result of recent immigration. In this usage Thai would not then be considered a Tai language. On the other hand, Gedney, Li and others have preferred to call the standard language of Thailand Siamese rather than Thai, perhaps to reduce potential Thai/Tai confusion, especially among English speakers not comfortable with making a non-English initial unaspirated voiceless initial sound for Tai, which in any event might sound artificial or arcane to outsiders.
According to Michel Ferlus, the ethnonyms Tai/Thai would have evolved from the etymon *kri: 'human being' through the following chain: kəri: > kəli: > kədi:/kədaj. This in turn changed to di:/daj. And then to *dajA > tʰajA2 or > tajA2. Michel Ferlus' work is based on some simple rules of phonetic change observable in the Sinosphere and studied for the most part by William H. Baxter.
Many of the languages are called Zhuang in China and Nung in Vietnam.

History

Citing the fact that both the Zhuang and Thai peoples have the same exonym for the Vietnamese, kɛɛuA1, Jerold A. Edmondson of the University of Texas at Arlington posited that the split between Zhuang and the Southwestern Tai languages happened no earlier than the founding of Jiaozhi in Vietnam in 112 BCE but no later than the 5th-6th century AD. Based on layers of Chinese loanwords in Proto-Southwestern Tai and other historical evidence, Pittayawat Pittayaporn suggests that the dispersal of Southwestern Tai must have begun sometime between the 8th and 10th centuries AD.

Internal classification

Haudricourt (1956)

Haudricourt emphasizes the specificity of Dioi and proposes to make a two-way distinction between the following two sets. The original language names used in Haudricourt's are provided first; alternative names are given in parentheses.
Characteristics of the Dioi group pointed out by Haudricourt are a correspondence between r- in Dioi and the lateral l- in the other Tai languages, divergent characteristics of the vowel systems of the Dioi group: e.g. 'tail' has a /a/ vowel in Tai proper, as against /ə̄/ in Bo-ai, /iə/ in Tianzhou, and /ɯə/ in Tianzhou and Wuming, and the lack, in the Dioi group, of aspirated stops and affricates, which are found everywhere in Tai proper.
As compared with Li Fang-kuei's classification, Haudricourt's classification amounts to consider Li's Southern Tai and Central Tai as forming a subgroup, of which Southwestern Tai is a sister: the three last languages in Haudricourt's list of 'Tai proper' languages are Tho, Longzhou, and Nung, which Li classifies as 'Central Tai'.

Li (1977)

divided Tai into Northern, Central, and Southwestern branches. However, Central Tai does not appear to be a valid group.
Li proposes a tripartite division of Tai into three sister branches. This classification scheme has long been accepted as the standard one in the field of comparative Tai linguistics.

Gedney (1989)

Gedney considers Central and Southwestern Tai to form a subgroup, of which Northern Tai is a sister. This classification is in agreement with Haudricourt.

Luo (1997)

Luo Yongxian classifies the Tai languages as follows, and proposes a fourth branch called Northwestern Tai that includes Ahom, Shan, Dehong Dai, and Khamti. All branches are considered to be coordinate to each other.

Pittayaporn (2009)

Overview

Pittayawat Pittayaporn classifies the Tai languages based on clusters of shared innovations . In Pittayaporn's preliminary classification system of the Tai languages, Central Tai is considered to be paraphyletic and is split up into multiple branches, with the Zhuang varieties of Chongzuo in southwestern Guangxi having the most internal diversity. The Southwestern Tai and Northern Tai branches remain intact as in Li Fang-Kuei's 1977 classification system, and several of the Southern Zhuang languages allocated ISO codes are considered to be paraphyletic. The classification is as follows.
Standard Zhuang is based on the dialect of Shuangqiao, Wuming District.

Sound changes

The following phonological shifts occurred in the Q, N, B, and C subgroups.
Proto-TaiSubgroup QSubgroup NSubgroup BSubgroup C
*ɤj, *ɤw, *ɤɰ*aj, *aw, *aɰ*i:, *u:, *ɯ:*i:, *u:, *ɯ:–
*ɯj, *ɯw*iː, *uː*aj, *aw*iː, *uː–
*we, *wo*eː, *oː*iː, *uː*eː, *oː*eː, *oː
*ɟm̩.r-*br-*ɟr-–*ɟr-
*k.t-–*tr-–*tr-
*ɤn, *ɤt, *ɤc–*an, *at, *ac––

Furthermore, the following shifts occurred at various nodes leading up to node Q.
's computational phylogenetic analysis of the Tai languages is shown below. Tay and Nung are both shown to be coherent branches under Central Tai. Northern Tai and Southwestern Tai are also shown to be coherent branches.

Reconstruction

has been reconstructed in 1977 by Li Fang-Kuei and by Pittayawat Pittayaporn in 2009.
Proto-Southwestern Tai has also been reconstructed in 1977 by Li Fang-Kuei and by Nanna L. Jonsson in 1991.
Proto-TaiThai alphabet
1stsingular*kuกู
1stdual *pʰɯaเผือ
1stplural *tuตู
Incl.dual *raรา
Incl.plural *rauเรา
2ndsingular*mɯŋมึง
2nddual*kʰɯaเขือ
2ndplural*suสู
3rdsingular*manมัน
3rddual*kʰaขา
3rdplural*kʰauเขา

Comparison

Below is comparative table of Tai languages.
EnglishProto-Southwestern TaiThaiLaoNorthern ThaiShanTai LüStandard ZhuangAhom
wind*lom/lōm//lóm//lōm//lóm//lôm//ɣum˧˩/lum
town*mɯaŋ/mɯ̄aŋ//mɯ́aŋ//mɯ̄aŋ//mɤ́ŋ//mɤ̂ŋ//mɯŋ˧/mvng
earth*ʔdin/dīn//dìn//dīn//lǐn//dín//dei˧/nin
fire*vai/aɯ/fāj//fáj//fāj//pʰáj/ or /fáj//fâj//fei˧˩/phai
heart*čai/aɯ/hǔa tɕāj//hǔa tɕàj//hǔa tɕǎj//hǒ tsǎɰ//hó tɕáj//sim/chau
love*rak/rák//hāk//hák//hâk//hak//gyai˧˩/rak
water*naam/náːm//nâm//nám//nâm//nà̄m//ɣaem˦˨/nam

Writing systems

Many Southwestern Tai languages are written using Brahmi-derived alphabets. Zhuang languages are traditionally written with Chinese characters called Sawndip, and now officially written with a romanized alphabet, though the traditional writing system is still in use to this day.