The Art of War


The Art of War is an ancient Chinese military treatise dating from the Late Spring and Autumn Period. The work, which is attributed to the ancient Chinese military strategist Sun Tzu, is composed of 13 chapters. Each one is devoted to an aspect of warfare and how it applies to military strategy and tactics. For almost 1,500 years it was the lead text in an anthology that would be formalised as the Seven Military Classics by Emperor Shenzong of Song in 1080. The Art of War remains the most influential strategy text in East Asian warfare and has influenced both Eastern and Western military thinking, business tactics, legal strategy, lifestyles and beyond.
The book contained a detailed explanation and analysis of the Chinese military, from weapons and strategy to rank and discipline. Sun also stressed the importance of intelligence operatives and espionage to the war effort. Because Sun has long been considered to be one of history's finest military tacticians and analysts, his teachings and strategies formed the basis of advanced military training for centuries to come.
The book was translated into French and published in 1772 by the French Jesuit Jean Joseph Marie Amiot. A partial translation into English was attempted by British officer Everard Ferguson Calthrop in 1905 under the title The Book of War. The first annotated English translation was completed and published by Lionel Giles in 1910. Military and political leaders such as the Chinese communist revolutionary Mao Zedong, Japanese daimyō Takeda Shingen, Vietnamese general Võ Nguyên Giáp, and American military general Norman Schwarzkopf Jr. have drawn inspiration from the book.

History

Text and commentaries

The Art of War is traditionally attributed to a military general from the late 6th century BC known as "Master Sun", though its earliest parts probably date to at least 100 years later. Sima Qian's 1st century BC work Records of the Grand Historian, the first of China's 24 dynastic histories, records an early Chinese tradition that a text on military matters was written by one "Sun Wu" from the State of Qi, and that this text had been read and studied by King Helü of Wu. This text was traditionally identified with the received Master Sun's Art of War. The conventional view was that Sun Wu was a military theorist from the end of the Spring and Autumn period who fled his home state of Qi to the southeastern kingdom of Wu, where he is said to have impressed the king with his ability to train even dainty palace ladies in warfare and to have made Wu's armies powerful enough to challenge their western rivals in the state of Chu. This view is still widely held in China.
The strategist, poet, and warlord Cao Cao in the early 3rd century AD authored the earliest known commentary to the Art of War. Cao's preface makes clear that he edited the text and removed certain passages, but the extent of his changes were unclear historically. The Art of War appears throughout the bibliographical catalogs of the Chinese dynastic histories, but listings of its divisions and size varied widely. In the early 20th century, the Chinese writer and reformer Liang Qichao theorized that the text was actually written in the 4th century BC by Sunzi's purported descendant Sun Bin, as a number of historical sources mention a military treatise he wrote.

Authorship

Around the 12th century, some scholars began to doubt the historical existence of Sunzi, primarily on the grounds that he is not mentioned in the historical classic The Commentary of Zuo, which mentions most of the notable figures from the Spring and Autumn period. The name "Sun Wu" does not appear in any text prior to the Records of the Grand Historian, and has been suspected to be a made-up descriptive cognomen meaning "the fugitive warrior": the surname "Sun" is glossed as the related term "fugitive", while "Wu" is the ancient Chinese virtue of "martial, valiant", which corresponds to Sunzi's role as the hero's doppelgänger in the story of Wu Zixu. Unlike Sun Wu, Sun Bin appears to have been an actual person who was a genuine authority on military matters, and may have been the inspiration for the creation of the historical figure "Sunzi" through a form of euhemerism.
In 1972, the Yinqueshan Han slips were discovered in two Han dynasty tombs near the city of Linyi in Shandong Province. Among the many bamboo slip writings contained in the tombs, which had been sealed between 134 and 118 BC, respectively were two separate texts, one attributed to "Sunzi", corresponding to the received text, and another attributed to Sun Bin, which explains and expands upon the earlier The Art of War by Sunzi. The Sun Bin text's material overlaps with much of the "Sunzi" text, and the two may be "a single, continuously developing intellectual tradition united under the Sun name". This discovery showed that much of the historical confusion was due to the fact that there were two texts that could have been referred to as "Master Sun's Art of War", not one. The content of the earlier text is about one-third of the chapters of the modern The Art of War, and their text matches very closely. It is now generally accepted that the earlier The Art of War was completed sometime between 500 and 430 BC.

The 13 chapters

The Art of War is divided into 13 chapters ; the collection is referred to as being one zhuàn.
ChapterLionel Giles R.L. Wing Ralph D. Sawyer Chow-Hou Wee Michael Nylan Ethan YetContents
ILaying PlansThe CalculationsInitial EstimationsDetail Assessment and Planning
First CalculationsCalculations before the warExplores the five fundamental factors and seven elements that determine the outcomes of military engagements. By thinking, assessing and comparing these points, a commander can calculate his chances of victory. Habitual deviation from these calculations will ensure failure via improper action. The text stresses that war is a very grave matter for the state and must not be commenced without due consideration.
IIWaging WarThe ChallengeWaging WarWaging War
Initiating BattleProcess of warExplains how to understand the economy of warfare and how success requires winning decisive engagements quickly. This section advises that successful military campaigns require limiting the cost of competition and conflict.
IIIAttack by StratagemThe Plan of AttackPlanning OffensivesStrategic Attack
Planning an AttackUse strategy to attackDefines the source of strength as unity, not size, and discusses the five factors that are needed to succeed in any war. In order of importance, these critical factors are: Attack, Strategy, Alliances, Army and Cities.
IVTactical DispositionsPositioningMilitary DispositionDisposition of the Army
Forms to PerceiveFormExplains the importance of defending existing positions until a commander is capable of advancing from those positions in safety. It teaches commanders the importance of recognizing strategic opportunities, and teaches not to create opportunities for the enemy.
VUse of EnergyDirectingStrategic Military PowerForces
The Disposition of PowerPositionExplains the use of creativity and timing in building an army's momentum.
VIWeak Points and StrongIllusion and RealityVacuity and SubstanceWeaknesses and Strengths
Weak and StrongFull and Hollow tacticsExplains how an army's opportunities come from the openings in the environment caused by the relative weakness of the enemy and how to respond to changes in the fluid battlefield over a given area.
VIIManeuvering an ArmyEngaging The ForceMilitary CombatMilitary Maneuvers
Contending ArmiesUse the army to competeExplains the dangers of direct conflict and how to win those confrontations when they are forced upon the commander.
VIIIVariation of TacticsThe Nine VariationsNine ChangesVariations and Adaptability
Nine ContingenciesNine contingency measuresFocuses on the need for flexibility in an army's responses. It explains how to respond to shifting circumstances successfully.
IXThe Army on the MarchMoving The ForceManeuvering the ArmyMovement and Development of Troops
Fielding the ArmyMarchingDescribes the different situations in which an army finds itself as it moves through new enemy territories, and how to respond to these situations. Much of this section focuses on evaluating the intentions of others.
XClassification of TerrainSituational PositioningConfigurations of TerrainTerrain
Conformations of the LandsTerrainLooks at the three general areas of resistance and the six types of ground positions that arise from them. Each of these six field positions offers certain advantages and disadvantages.
XIThe Nine SituationsThe Nine SituationsNine TerrainsThe Nine Battlegrounds
Nine Kinds of GroundNine situations of terrainDescribes the nine common situations in a campaign, from scattering to deadly, and the specific focus that a commander will need in order to successfully navigate them.
XIIAttack by FireThe Fiery AttackIncendiary AttacksAttacking with Fire
Attacks with FireAttack with fireExplains the general use of weapons and the specific use of the environment as a weapon. This section examines the five targets for attack, the five types of environmental attack and the appropriate responses to such attacks.
XIIIUse of SpiesThe Use of IntelligenceEmploying SpiesIntelligence and Espionage
Using SpiesUsing SpiesFocuses on the importance of developing good information sources, and specifies the five types of intelligence sources and how to best manage each of them.

Quotations

Chinese

Verses from the book occur in modern daily Chinese idioms and phrases, such as the last verse of Chapter 3:
This has been more tersely interpreted and condensed into the Chinese modern proverb:

English

Common examples can also be found in English use, such as verse 18 in Chapter 1:
This has been abbreviated to its most basic form and condensed into the English modern proverb:

Cultural influence

Military and intelligence applications

Across East Asia, The Art of War was part of the syllabus for potential candidates of military service examinations.
During the Sengoku period, the Japanese daimyō named Takeda Shingen is said to have become almost invincible in all battles without relying on guns, because he studied The Art of War. The book even gave him the inspiration for his famous battle standard "Fūrinkazan", meaning fast as the wind, silent as a forest, ferocious as fire and immovable as a mountain.
The translator Samuel B. Griffith offers a chapter on "Sun Tzu and Mao Tse-Tung" where The Art of War is cited as influencing Mao's On Guerrilla Warfare, On the Protracted War and Strategic Problems of China's Revolutionary War, and includes Mao's quote: "We must not belittle the saying in the book of Sun Wu Tzu, the great military expert of ancient China, 'Know your enemy and know yourself and you can fight a thousand battles without disaster."
During the Vietnam War, some Vietcong officers extensively studied The Art of War and reportedly could recite entire passages from memory. General Võ Nguyên Giáp successfully implemented tactics described in The Art of War during the Battle of Dien Bien Phu ending major French involvement in Indochina and leading to the accords which partitioned Vietnam into North and South. General Võ, later the main PVA military commander in the Vietnam War, was an avid student and practitioner of Sun Tzu's ideas. America's defeat there, more than any other event, brought Sun Tzu to the attention of leaders of American military theory.
The Department of the Army in the United States, through its Command and General Staff College, lists The Art of War as one example of a book that may be kept at a military unit's library.
The Art of War is listed on the Marine Corps Professional Reading Program. It is recommended reading for all United States Military Intelligence personnel.
The Art of War is used as instructional material at the US Military Academy at West Point, in the course Military Strategy, and it is also recommended reading for Royal Officer cadets at the Royal Military Academy, Sandhurst. Some notable military leaders have stated the following about Sun Tzu and the Art of War:
“I always kept a copy of The Art of War on my Desk,” General Douglas McArthur, 5 Star General & Supreme Commander of the Allied Powers.
“I have read The Art of War by Sun Tzu. He continues to influence both soldiers & politicians.” General Colin Powell, Chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff, National Security Advisor, and Secretary of State.
According to some authors, the strategy of deception from The Art of War was studied and widely used by the KGB: "I will force the enemy to take our strength for weakness, and our weakness for strength, and thus will turn his strength into weakness". The book is widely cited by KGB officers in charge of disinformation operations in Vladimir Volkoff's novel Le Montage.
Finnish Field Marshal Mannerheim and general Aksel Airo were avid readers of Art of War. They both read it in French; Airo kept the French translation of the book on his bedside table in his quarters.

Application outside the military

The Art of War has been applied to many fields outside of the military. Much of the text is about how to outsmart one's opponent without actually having to engage in physical battle. As such, it has found application as a training guide for many competitive endeavors that do not involve actual combat.
The Art of War is mentioned as an influence in the earliest known Chinese collection of stories about fraud, Zhang Yingyu's The Book of Swindles, which dates to the late Ming dynasty.
Many business books have applied the lessons taken from the book to office politics and corporate business strategy. Many Japanese companies make the book required reading for their key executives. The book is also popular among Western business circles citing its utilitarian value regarding management practices. Many entrepreneurs and corporate executives have turned to it for inspiration and advice on how to succeed in competitive business situations. The book has also been applied to the field of education.
The Art of War has been the subject of legal books and legal articles on the trial process, including negotiation tactics and trial strategy.
The Art of War has also been applied in sports. National Football League coach Bill Belichick, recorded holder of the most Super Bowl wins in history, has stated on multiple occasions his admiration for The Art of War. Brazilian association football coach Luiz Felipe Scolari actively used The Art of War for Brazil’s successful 2002 World Cup campaign. During the tournament Scolari put passages of The Art of War underneath his players’ doors in the night.
The Art of War is often quoted while developing tactics and/or strategy in Electronic Sports. Particularly, one of the fundamental books about e-sports, "Play To Win" by Massachusetts Institute of Technology graduate David Sirlin, is actually just an analysis about possible applications of the ideas from The Art of War in modern Electronic Sports. The Art of War was released in 2014 as an e-book companion alongside the Art of War DLC for Europa Universalis IV, a PC strategy game by Paradox Development Studios, with a foreword by Thomas Johansson.

Film and television

The Art of War and Sun Tzu have been referenced and quoted in various movies and television shows. In the 1987 movie Wall Street, Gordon Gekko frequently references The Art of War while dispensing advice to his young protégé Bud Fox. In the latter stages of the movie, Fox mentions Sun Tzu himself when describing his plan on trapping Gekko. The 20th James Bond film, Die Another Day, released in 2002, also references The Art of War as the spiritual guide shared by Colonel Moon and his father.
In the Michael Bay film The Rock, imprisoned British spy John Mason has a copy of The Art of War on his bookshelf in his cell.
In television, The Art of War was referenced in The Sopranos. In season 3, episode 8, Dr. Melfi suggests to Tony Soprano that he read the book. Later in the episode Tony tells Dr. Melfi he is impressed with the Sun Tzu, stating “Here’s this guy, a Chinese general, who wrote this thing 2400 years ago, and most of it still applies today!” Immediately following the episode of The Sopranos sales of The Art of War spiked.
In ' first-season episode "The Last Outpost," Riker quoted The Art of War to Captain Picard, who expressed pleasure that Sun Tzu was still taught at Starfleet Academy. Later in the episode, a survivor from a long-dead nonhuman empire noted common aspects between his own people's wisdom and The Art of War with regard to knowing when and when not''' to fight.
The Art of War is a 2000 action spy film directed by Christian Duguay and starring Wesley Snipes, Michael Biehn, Anne Archer and Donald Sutherland.

Notable translations