Yi people


The Yi or Nuosuo people are an ethnic group in China, Vietnam, and Thailand. Numbering nine million people, they are the seventh largest of the 55 ethnic minority groups officially recognized by the People's Republic of China. They live primarily in rural areas of Sichuan, Yunnan, Guizhou, and Guangxi, usually in mountainous regions. Liangshan Yi Autonomous Prefecture is the prefecture containing the largest population of Yi people within mainland China, with two million Yi people in the region. For other countries, as of 1999, there were 3,300 Mantsi-speaking "Lô Lô" people living in the Hà Giang, Cao Bằng, and Lào Cai provinces in northern Vietnam.
The Yi speak various Loloish languages, closely related to Burmese. The prestige variety is Nuosu, which is written in the Yi script.

Location

Of the more than 9 million Yi people, over 4.5 million live in Yunnan Province, 2.5 million live in southern Sichuan Province, and 1 million live in the northwest corner of Guizhou Province. Nearly all the Yi live in mountainous areas, often carving out their existence on the sides of steep mountain slopes far from the cities of China.
The altitudinal differences of the Yi areas directly affect the climate and precipitation of these areas. These striking differences are the basis of the old saying that "The weather is different a few miles away" in the Yi area. Yi populations in different areas are very different from one another, making their living in completely different ways.

Subgroups

Although different groups of Yi refer to themselves in different ways and sometimes speak mutually unintelligible languages, they have been grouped into a single ethnicity by the Chinese, and the various local appellations can be classified into three groups:
ClassificationApproximate total populationGroups
Southern1,082,120Nisu, Southern Nasu, Muji, A Che, Southern Gaisu, Pula,
Boka, Lesu, Chesu, Laowu, Alu, Azong, Xiuba
Southeastern729,760Poluo, Sani, Axi, Azhe, Southeastern Lolo, Jiasou, Puwa,
Aluo, Awu, Digao, Meng, Xiqi, Ati, Daizhan, Asahei, Laba,
Zuoke, Ani, Minglang, Long
Central565,080Lolopo, Dayao Lipo, Central Niesu, Enipu, Lopi, Popei
Eastern1,456,270Eastern Nasu, Panxian Nasu, Wusa Nasu, Shuixi Nosu,
Wuding Lipo, Mangbu Nosu, Eastern Gepo, Naisu, Wumeng,
Naluo, Samei, Sanie, Luowu, Guopu, Gese, Xiaohei Neisu,
Dahei Neisu, Depo, Laka, Lagou, Aling, Tushu, Gouzou,
Wopu, Eastern Samadu
Western1,162,040Mishaba Laluo, Western Lolo, Xiangtang, Xinping Lalu,
Yangliu Lalu, Tusu, Gaiji, Jiantou Laluo, Xijima, Limi, Mili,
Lawu, Qiangyi, Western Samadu, Western Gepo,
Xuzhang Lalu, Eka, Western Gaisu, Suan, Pengzi
Northern2,534,120Shengba Nosu, Yinuo Nosu, Xiaoliangshan Nosu, Butuo Nosu,
Suodi, Tianba Nosu, Bai Yi, Naruo, Naru, Talu, Mixisu, Liwu,
Northern Awu, Tagu, Liude, Naza, Ta'er
Unclassified55,490Michi, Jinghong Nasu, Apu, Muzi, Tanglang, Micha,
Ayizi, Guaigun

History

Some scholars believe that the Yi are descended from the ancient Qiang people of today's western China, who are also said to be the ancestors of the Tibetan, Naxi and Qiang peoples. They migrated from southeastern Tibet through Sichuan and into the Yunnan Province, where their largest populations can be found today.
They practice a form of animism, led by a shaman priest known as the Bimaw. They still retain a few ancient religious texts written in their unique pictographic script. Their religion also contains many elements of Daoism and Buddhism.
Many of the Yi in Liangshan and northwestern Yunnan practiced a complicated form of slavery. People were split into the nuohuo or Black Yi, qunuo or White Yi, and slaves. White Yi were free and could own property and slaves but were in a way tied to a lord. Other ethnic groups were held as slaves.

Legend

Most Yi believe they have the same ancestor, ꀉꁌꅋꃅ or ꀉꁌꐧꃅ. It is said that Apu Dumu married three wives and had six sons: each of the wives bore two sons. In the legend, the oldest two sons leading their tribes conquered other aborigines of Yunnan and began to reside in most of the territories of Yunnan. The youngest two sons led their tribes eastwards and were defeated by Han, before finally making western Guizhou their home and creating the largest quantity of Yi script documents. The other two sons led their tribes across the Jinsha River and dwelled in Liangshan. This group had close intermarriage with the local ꁍ.

Prehistory

Most Yi live in Liangshan, Chuxiong, and Honghe. At the Lizhou archaeological site near Xichang of Liangshan, dating to 3,000 years ago, many artifacts of the Neolithic Age have been discovered. Although no evidence proves that these ancient cultures of the Stone Age have a direct connection with modern Yi people, their descendants, a local bronze culture, may have had some influence on Yi people, as the ancestors of Yi people had frequent contact and intermarriage with local tribes, such as Dian, Qiong and Zuo, during their southwards migration from the north eastern edge of the Tibetan Plateau. Today, the Yi people still call the city of Xichang as ꀒꎂ. In spite of the affix “or-”, the root “dro” is believed by some scholars to be related to the tribe Qiong, as the pronunciation is quite close to the ancient pronunciation of the Chinese character "邛."

Ancient history

During the Han dynasty, the central sovereign of China conquered the valley of Anning River, which is a tributary of Yalong River, and founded a county there named Qiongdu. The site is Xichang of present-day and from that time onwards, Xichang has become the bridge of Chengdu and Kunming across Yi area. Since Han dynasty, Yi people have been involved in the history of China. In the north dialect of modern Yi language, Chinese Han is still called ꉌꈲ, which is related to the Chinese word "汉家, which means household of Han.
After the Han dynasty, the Shu of the Three Kingdoms conducted several wars against the ancestors of Yi under the lead of Zhuge Liang. They defeated the king of Yi, ꂽꉼ and expanded their conquered territory in Yi area. After that, the Jin Dynasty succeed Shu as the suzerainty of Yi area but with weak control.
After the Jin dynasty, central China entered the era of the Southern and Northern Dynasties with frequent wars against the invading nomads from the north and lost its control of Yi and Yi area.
In the 4th century, the Nasu Yi kingdom of Mu'ege was formed in present day Guizhou. According to Nasu Yi legend, they are descended from Dumuwu, whose three wives bore him six sons. These six sons migrated southwest and created the Wu, Zha, Nuo, Heng, Bu, and Mo clans. These clans migrated and settled in a large area from Sichuan to the north, Guizhou to the east and Yunnan to the south and were the progenitors of several medieval Yi Kingdoms such as Luodian or Ziqi.
Although the Sui dynasty reunited China, it did not retrieve control of Yi but had close communications with Han residential spots scattered within Yi area. After the Sui dynasty's mere 37 years, the situation continued in Tang dynasty. During Sui and Tang dynasty, the local aborigines of present-day Yunnan and Liangshan were distinguished by Chinese Han as Wuman and Baiman. Some scholars believe that Wuman is the ancestor of modern Yi while Baiman is the ancestor of modern Bai people of Yunnan.

Nanzhao

The Wuman and Baiman people founded six independent cities on Yunnan-Guizhou Plateau. The cities were known as zhao in Chinese texts, meaning 'lordship'. In 649, King Xinuluo of the Mengshe zhao extended his city's territory into a kingdom that assumed the name Great Meng Kingdom. Great Meng was near Erhai Lake. Yi people believe the capital of the Great Meng was located in the area of nowaday Weishan county. In 737 with the support of the Tang dynasty of China, King Piluoge of the Great Meng united the six cities in succession, establishing a new kingdom. As the Great Meng was the most southern of the six, the Tang dynasty recorded the united Great Meng as Nanzhao, which means the southern city. Although academic arguments exist, there is a popular view that the royal family of Nanzhao were Yi people and ministers were Bai people. In the Weishan county of today, the saga of King Piluoge is still widely told.
Tibet also noted the spring of Nanzhao, which in Tibetan is called Jang. Although Tibet had maintained suzerainty over Nanzhao for decades, Nanzhao finally turned to the Tang dynasty. At the era of King Geluofeng, who was the son of King Piluoge, the Tang dynasty performed three expeditions against Nanzhao to conquer it, but all failed.
Nanzhao existed for 165 years until A.D. 902. After 35 years of tangled warfare, Duan Siping of the Bai birth founded the Kingdom of Dali, succeeding the territory of Nanzhao. Most Yi of that time were under the ruling of Dali. Dali's sovereign existed for 316 years coterminous with the Song dynasty of central China, until it was conquered by Kublai Khan. During the era of Dali, Yi people lived in the territory of Dali but had little communication with the royalty of Dali.
Kublai Khan included Dali in his domain, grouping it with Tibet. The Yuan emperors remained firmly in control of the Yi people and the area they inhabited as part of Kublai Khan's Yunnan Xingsheng at current Yunnan, Guizhou and part of Sichuan. In order to enhance its sovereign over the area, the Yuan dynasty set up a dominion for Yi, Luoluo Xuanweisi, the name of which means local appeasement government for Lolos. Although technically under the rule of the Yuan emperor, the Yi still had autonomy during the Yuan dynasty. The gulf between aristocrats and the common people increased during this time.

Absorption by Imperial Chinese dynasties

Beginning with the Ming dynasty the Chinese empire expedited its cultural assimilation policy in southwestern China, spreading the policy of gaitu guiliu with ′normal′ officials"). The governing power of many Yi feudal lords had previously been expropriated by the successors of officials assigned by the central government. With the progress of gaitu guiliu, the Yi area was dismembered into many communities both large and small, and it was difficult for the communities to communicate with each other as there were often Han-ruled areas between them.
The Kangxi Emperor of the Qing dynasty defeated Wu Sangui and took over the land of Yunnan and established a provincial government there. When Ortai became the Viceroy of Yunnan and Guizhou during the era of Yongzheng Emperor, the policy of gaitu guiliu and cultural assimilation against Yi were strengthened. Under these policies, Yi who lived near Kunming were forced to abandon their convention of traditional cremation and adopt burial, a policy which triggered rebellions among the Yi. The Qing dynasty suppressed these rebellions.
After the Second Opium War, many Christian missionaries from France and Great Britain visited the area in which the Yi lived. Although some missionaries believed that Yi of some areas such as Liangshan were not under the ruling of Qing dynasty and should be independent, most aristocrats insisted that Yi was a part of China despite their resentment against Qing rule.

Modern era

, a Yi, was the military governor of Yunnan, during the Republic of China rule on mainland China.
The Fourth Front Army of the CCP encountered the Yi people during the Long March, and many Yi joined the communist forces.
After the establishment of the PRC, several Yi autonomous administrative districts of prefecture or county level were set up in Sichuan, Yunnan, and Guizhou. With the development of automotive traffic and telecommunications, the communications among different Yi areas have been increasing sharply.

Ethnic Yi kingdoms in history

The Chinese government recognizes six mutually unintelligible Yi languages, from various branches of the Loloish family:
Northern Yi is the largest with some two million speakers, and is the basis of the literary language. It is an analytic language. There are also ethnically Yi languages of Vietnam which use the Yi script, such as Mantsi.
Many Yi in Yunnan, Guizhou and Guangxi know Standard Chinese, and code-switching between Yi and Chinese is common.

Distribution

By province

By county

;County-level distribution of the Yi 2000 census in China.
County/cityYi %Yi populationTotal population
Sichuan province2.582,122,38982,348,296
Panzhihua city10.11110,3261,091,657
Dong district1.253,945315,707
Xi district1.843,148170,862
Renhe district19.0638,907204,170
Miyi county13.2127,381207,300
Yanbian county19.0836,945193,618
Leshan city3.53117,3553,324,139
Jinkouhe district10.155,37352,916
Ebian Yi autonomous county30.6543,269141,166
Mabian Yi autonomous county39.1566,723170,425
Pingshan county2.005,004250,620
Yaan city2.0431,0131,522,845
Hanyuan county4.5115,686347,471
Shimian county11.1713,769123,261
Garze Tibetan autonomous prefecture2.5622,946897,239
Luding county4.403,42477,855
Jiulong county37.0118,80650,816
Liangshan Yi autonomous prefecture44.431,813,6834,081,697
Xichang city16.48101,369615,212
Muli Tibetan autonomous county27.7134,489124,462
Yanyuan county47.67149,568313,765
Dechang county23.1843,810188,980
Huili county17.3375,064433,185
Huidong county6.9124,279351,310
Ningnan county21.8537,134169,962
Puge county76.55106,521139,156
Butuo county95.44132,285138,604
Jinyang county78.42109,813140,028
Zhaojue county96.75200,951207,712
Xide county85.74118,048137,676
Mianning county33.39108,289324,332
Yuexi county72.54172,505237,800
Ganluo county68.66120,445175,426
Meigu county97.81172,356176,214
Leibo county51.36106,757207,873
Guizhou province2.39843,55435,247,695
Baiyun district1.041,961187,695
Qingzhen city1.657,761471,305
Liupanshui city9.56262,3082,744,085
Zhongshan district5.6425,549453,293
Liuzhi special district11.3261,319541,762
Shuicheng county11.7079,339678,228
Pan county8.9796,1011,070,802
Qianxi'nan Bouyei Miao autonomous prefecture2.0558,7662,864,920
Xingyi city2.0214,521719,605
Xingren county2.4410,372425,091
Puan county2.666,905259,881
Qinglong county6.7617,436258,031
Anlong county2.289,094399,384
Bijie prefecture7.41468,8006,327,471
Bijie city4.2648,0941,128,230
Dafang county10.8492,295851,729
Qianxi county8.6760,420697,075
Jinsha county4.1720,696496,063
Zhijin county3.8131,420825,350
Nayong county5.7237,840661,772
Weining Yi Hui Miao autonomous county9.0695,6291,056,009
Hezhang county13.4882,406611,243
Yunnan province11.114,705,65842,360,089
Kunming city6.65384,5315,781,294
Wuhua district2.5610,580413,420
Panlong district1.595,468344,754
Guandu district3.3847,3111,398,305
Xishan district5.0730,617603,363
Dongchuan district3.268,984275,564
Chenggong county1.222,202180,685
Jinning county7.6420,443267,739
Fumin county7.4410,422140,046
Yiliang county6.0624,051396,677
Shilin Yi autonomous county32.4972,779223,978
Luquan Yi Miao autonomous county22.4596,388429,355
Xundian Hui Yi autonomous county8.9142,934481,721
Anning city3.349,872295,173
Qujing city3.85210,3515,466,089
Qilin district2.1614,041648,956
Malong county3.416,326185,766
Shizong county6.2121,718349,770
Luoping county6.4433,159515,211
Fuyuan county7.1647,076657,474
Huize county2.0016,910844,485
Zhanyi county2.168,406389,838
Xuanwei city4.4657,7081,292,825
Yuxi city19.32400,4122,073,005
Hongta district9.0236,905409,044
Jiangchuan county5.4814,087257,078
Chengjiang county1.822,726149,748
Tonghai county5.8216,017275,063
Huaning county21.2941,844196,519
Yimen county26.7545,362169,581
Eshan Yi autonomous county52.3679,289151,426
Xinping Yi Dai autonomous county46.20122,259264,615
Yuanjiang Hani Yi Dai autonomous county20.9741,923199,931
Zhaotong prefecture3.23148,5214,592,388
Zhaotong city2.5818,758727,959
Ludian county2.518,686345,740
Qiaojia county2.8613,183461,034
Daguan county1.984,667235,802
Yongshan county4.7217,130362,943
Zhenxiong county5.7863,4631,097,093
Yiliang county4.2420,269477,811
Chuxiong Yi autonomous prefecture26.31668,9372,542,530
Chuxiong city19.0595,959503,682
Shuangbai county43.1066,110153,403
Mouding county22.0343,032195,322
Nanhua county36.0782,223227,970
Yaoan county25.3850,526199,071
Dayao county29.5282,620279,838
Yongren county49.4451,223103,606
Yuanmou county24.2549,179202,779
Wuding county30.1879,254262,601
Lufeng county16.6168,811414,258
Honghe Hani Yi autonomous prefecture23.57973,7324,130,463
Gejiu city20.2791,902453,311
Kaiyuan city33.0996,647292,039
Mengzi county29.3899,917340,051
Pingbian Miao autonomous county18.5127,596149,088
Jianshui county29.02149,071513,712
Shiping county53.67148,987277,580
Mile county30.92153,235495,642
Luxi county7.9929,202365,585
Yuanyang county24.0187,137362,950
Honghe county14.2338,086267,627
Jinping Miao Yao Dai autonomous county11.9737,837316,171
Lüchun county4.929,894201,256
Hekou Yao autonomous county4.424,22195,451
Wenshan Zhuang Miao autonomous prefecture10.62347,1943,268,553
Wenshan county17.2874,255429,639
Yanshan county21.1192,356437,508
Xichou county3.959,332236,120
Malipo county2.256,036267,986
Maguan county9.1632,056350,002
Qiubei county18.0578,327434,009
Guangnan county5.8442,675730,376
Funing county3.1712,157382,913
Pu'er city16.58411,1202,480,346
Simao district15.1234,904230,834
Ning'er Hani Yi autonomous county19.4536,589188,106
Mojiang Hani autonomous county9.2332,812355,364
Jingdong Yi autonomous county39.92140,556352,089
Jinggu Dai Yi autonomous county20.5959,476288,794
Zhenyuan Yi Hani Lahu autonomous county27.2856,119205,709
Jiangcheng Hani Yi autonomous county13.4713,503100,243
Menglian Dai Lahu Va autonomous county2.404,999208,593
Lancang Lahu autonomous county6.7431,255464,016
Ximeng Va autonomous county1.0590786,598
Xishuangbanna Dai autonomous prefecture5.6155,772993,397
Jinghong city5.5624,673443,672
Menghai county2.287,175314,068
Mengla county10.1523,924235,657
Dali Bai autonomous prefecture12.94426,6343,296,552
Dali city2.9515,385521,169
Yangbi Yi autonomous county46.0948,565105,380
Xiangyun county7.2631,733437,371
Binchuan county6.2720,332324,412
Midu county8.3524,791296,860
Nanjian Yi autonomous county47.2499,159209,887
Weishan Yi Hui autonomous county34.07100,879296,124
Yongping county26.5647,391178,438
Yunlong county5.4510,739196,978
Eryuan county3.009,443315,003
Jianchuan county2.884,771165,900
Heqing county5.4013,446249,030
Baoshan prefecture3.2375,8772,348,315
Baoshan city4.6139,025846,865
Shidian county3.6211,360314,187
Longling county1.834,758260,097
Changning county6.0420,123333,241
Lijiang prefecture18.68210,4311,126,646
Lijiang Naxi autonomous county2.428,871366,705
Yongsheng county12.4346,703375,769
Huaping county8.2612,808154,968
Ninglang Yi autonomous county61.97142,049229,204
Nujiang Lisu autonomous prefecture1.999,805491,824
Lushui county2.283,915171,974
Lanping Bai Pumi autonomous county2.915,727196,977
Diqing Tibetan autonomous prefecture3.2911,616353,518
Zhongdian county6.509,586147,416
Weixi Lisu autonomous county1.382,016146,017
Lincang prefecture15.77367,8802,332,570
Lincang county5.4315,478285,163
Fengqing county27.61117,883426,943
Yun county37.96158,099416,507
Yongde county8.6829,521339,918
Zhenkang county17.1931,334182,258
Shuangjiang Lahu Va Blang Dai autonomous county1.572,605165,982
Gengma Dai Va autonomous county3.5711,193313,220
Longlin autonomous county 1.033,563347,462

Script

The Yi script was originally logosyllabic like Chinese, and dates to at least the 13th century. There were perhaps 10,000 characters, many of which were regional, since the script had never been standardized across the Yi peoples. A number of works of history, literature, and medicine, as well as genealogies of the ruling families, written in the Old Yi script are still in use, and there are Old Yi stone tablets and steles in the area.
Under the Communist government, the script was standardized as a syllabary. Syllabic Yi is widely used in books, newspapers, and street signs.

Culture

The Yi play a number of traditional musical instruments, including large plucked and bowed string instruments, as well as wind instruments called bawu and mabu. The Yi also play the hulu sheng, though unlike other minority groups in Yunnan, the Yi do not play the hulu sheng for courtship or love songs. The kouxian, a small four-pronged instrument similar to the Jew's harp, is another commonly found instrument among the Liangshan Yi. Kouxian songs are most often improvised and are supposed to reflect the mood of the player or the surrounding environment. Kouxian songs can also occasionally function in the aiqing form. Yi dance is perhaps the most commonly recognized form of musical performance, as it is often performed during publicly sponsored holidays and/or festival events.
Yi people's son's given name is patronymic, based on the last one or two syllable of father's name.
Artist Colette Fu, great granddaughter of Long Yun has spent time from 1996 till present photographing the Yi community in Yunnan province. Her series of pop-up books, titled We are Tiger Dragon People, includes images of many Yi groups.

Religion

Bimoism

is the ethnic religion of the Yi. Shaman-priests of this faith are known as bimo, which means 'master of scriptures'. Bimo officiate at births, funerals, weddings and holidays. They are often seen along the street consulting ancient scripts. The Yi worship deified ancestors similarly to the Chinese traditional religion practitioners, besides gods of local nature: fire, hills, trees, rocks, water, earth, sky, wind, and forests.
Ritual performances play a major role in daily life through healing, exorcism, asking for rain, cursing enemies, blessing, divination and analysis of one's relationship with the gods. They believe dragons protect villages against bad spirits, and demons cause diseases. However, the Yi dragon is neither similar to dragon in Western culture nor the same as that in Han culture. After someone dies they sacrifice a pig or sheep at the doorway to maintain relationship with the deceased spirit. The Yi believe that bad spirits cause illness, poor harvests and other misfortunes and inhabit all material things. The Yi also believe in multiple souls. At death, one soul remains to watch the grave while the other is eventually reincarnated into some living form.
The Nosu form of Bimoism distinguishes two sorts of shamans: the bimo and the suni, respectively hereditary and ordained priests. One can become bimo by patrilineal descent after a time of apprenticeship or formally acknowledging an old bimo as the teacher, a suni must be elected. Bimo are the most revered, to the point that the Nosu religion is also called "bimo religion". Bimo can read Yi scripts while suni cannot. Both can perform rituals, but only bimo can perform rituals linked to death. For most cases, suni only perform some exorcism to cure diseases. Generally, suni can only be from humble civil birth while bimo can be of both aristocratic and humble families.
In recent decades the Bimoist faith has undergone a revival, with large temples built in the early-2010s.

Other religions

In Yunnan, some of the Yi have adopted Buddhism as a result of exchanges with other predominantly Buddhist ethnic groups present in Yunnan, such as the Dai and the Tibetans. The most important god of Yi Buddhism is Mahākāla, a wrathful deity found in Vajrayana and Tibetan Buddhism. In the 20th century, some Yi people in China converted to Christianity, after the arrival of Gladstone Porteous in 1904 and, later, medical missionaries such as Alfred James Broomhall, Janet Broomhall, Ruth Dix and Joan Wales of the China Inland Mission. According to missionary organization OMF International, the exact number of Yi Christians is not known. In 1991 it was reported that there were as many as 1,500,000 Yi Christians in Yunnan Province, especially in Luquan County where there are more than 20 churches.

Medicine

The Yi are known for the extent of their inter-generational transmission of traditional medicine through oral tradition and written records. Their traditional medicine system has been academically inventoried Since the prefecture the Yi medicinal data was collected from also contains the cave containing human-infectable SARS clades, and it is known that people living in the vicinity SARS caves show serological signs of past infection, it has been suggested that the Yi were repeatably exposed to coronavirus over their history, passively learned to medicinally fend off coronavirus infection centuries ago, and committed the results into their inter-generational record of medicinal indications.

Notable people

Citations