Comparison of Japanese and Korean
The geographically close Japanese and Korean languages share considerable similarity in typological features of their syntax and morphology while having a small number of lexical resemblances and different native scripts, although a common denominator is the presence of Chinese characters, where kanji are part of Japanese orthography, while hanja were historically used to write Korean. Observing the said similarities and probable history of Korean influence on Japanese culture, linguists have formulated different theories proposing a genetic relationship between them, though these studies either lack conclusive evidence or were subsets of theories that have suffered large discredit.
The topic of similarity between the two languages can be politically controversial due to the historical relationship between Japan and Korea, particularly the language policy of Japanese-ruled Korea. Any relation between the two languages remains controversial.
Overview
| Korean | Japanese | |
| Speakers | 77.2 million | 125 million |
| Countries | ||
| Family | Koreanic | Japonic |
| Writing | Hangul, Hanja | Kanji, Kana |
Grammar
Korean and Japanese both have an agglutinative morphology in which verbs may function as prefixes and a subject–object–verb typology. They are both topic-prominent, null-subject languages. Both languages extensively utilize turning nouns into verbs via the "to do" helper verbs.Modern Korean and Japanese share a similar system of proximal and distal demonstrative pronouns: i-, ku- and jeo- for Korean corresponding to the Japanese ko-, so- and a- . They both lack a compulsory distinction of plurality.
Korean and Japanese also share the particle system. Korean and the Japonic languages are among the few extant languages in the world with topic markers. This allows words of different parts of speech to be placed in exactly the same order if some sentences are translated from one language to another. Such direct word for word swapping cannot be so easily done with any other languages, showing that Korean and Japanese are grammatically quite similar.
There are some differences, however. Japanese utilizes passive grammar more frequently than Korean, and has four common verb conjugations to express "if", while Korean has three. Korean also has distinct future tenses while Japanese often relies on context rather than directly indicating the future nature of a sentence.
Vocabulary
The two languages have previously been thought to not share any cognates, for their vocabularies do not phonetically resemble each other. However, a 2016 paper proposing a common lineage between Korean and Japanese traces around 500 core words thought to share a common origin. Most resembling lexicon in the study has been observed between Middle Korean and earlier Old Japanese, some of which is shown in the following table:| Keyword | Middle Korean | Old Japanese | Proposed Proto-Japanese-Korean |
| abandons | stú | sute | *sɨtu |
| adds | kwop | kupape | *kop |
| k | ka | *k + *a | |
| avoids | skúy | sake | *səka |
| bamboo | táy ?< *taGVy | takey | *takəj |
| basket | kwulek | kwo | *kura / *kuwa |
| bear | kwom < Proto-Korean *komá | kuma | *koma |
| below | aláy | aye | *ar |
| bestows | kwomá , kwómáw | kubar / kumar | *kuma |
| bird | say | sagi | *saŋi |
| bites | kemelí , kam-spol | kam | *kamɨ |
| body | mwóm | mu/ mwi | *mom |
| boils it | nóy | ni | *nəj |
| bottom | stáh | sita | *sita |
| box | pakwoní | pakwo | *pako |
| brings into life | wum | um | *um |
| bundles | mwusk | musub | *musu |
| buries it | wumúl , wúmh , wumwuk-ho | ume | *umu |
| cage | wulí | wori | *orɨj |
| carbon | swusk | susu | *susu |
| carries on back | ep | op | *əp |
| carves a line | kuzu | kizam , kisage | *kinsɨ |
| cat | kwoy | nekwo | *ko |
| ceremony | kwús | kusi | *kusuj |
| changes | kaph | kap , kape , kapar | *kap |
| cheek | pwól | popo < *po-po | *por |
| chicken | tolk | tori | *tərəŋ |
| closes it | tat | tat | *tat |
| cloth | swowom | swo | *so |
| cloudy | skí | sike | *siki |
| collects | kat | kate | *kat |
| comes | ká | ko | *kə |
| confines | kalm | karame | *karama |
| congeals | kel | kor | *kərɨ |
| correct | mac , maskaw | masa | *masa |
| countryside | wúy ánh | wi naka | *uj + inside |
| daytime | nác | natu | *nacu |
| deep inside | swop / swok ?< *swowók | oku | *owoku |
| dissolves / lonely | súl , sulgwú , sulphu , sulh | sabwi , sabu, EMJ sabi | *sɨr |
| drags | kuzu | kozi | *kɨnsɨ |
| drawn in | pemúli , pemúl , pemúl | pame | *pamɨ |
| drops | twú | otos , oti , otor | *ɨtɨ |
| each | mata | mata , mata-si | *mata |
| edge | pask | pasi | *pasi |
| empties | sku, pskú | suk | *sukɨ |
| end | patáng, modern korean patak | pate , patas | *pataŋ |
| enfolds | mek | mak | *mek or *mak |
| et cetera | yá / yé | ya | *ja |
| evergreen | swól | sugwi | *suŋor |
| exchanges | kaph kaps < *kap | kap | *kap |
| exhausts | cwuk | tukwi tukus | *cuk + Proto-Japanese *wo |
| expresses emotion | noch | natuk | *nəcuk |
| extremity | kiph | kipa | *kipa |
| faces | mwok | muk | *mok |
| faint | kaskaw , kezúy | kasu-ka , kasu | *kasu |
| farm field | path | pata, patake | *pata |
| fat | pwutúlew , modern korean pwutwung | putwo | *puto |
| ferments | sek | saka / sakey | *sek |
| fills | tam | tamar , tame | *tama |
| fire | púl | pwi / po | *pɨr |
| flattens it | tatóm , modern korean tatumicil | tatam , tatami | *tatəm , tatəm-i |
| fork | motoy | mata | *mataj or *mətaj |
| full | michu / micho | mit | *mica |
| gathers a crowd | múli / mwuli / mwúl | mure | *mur |
| gets | et | atar | *atɨ |
| goes out | ná | nar | *na |
| grabs | az | asar | *asa |
| harbors | phwúm | pukum | *pukum |
| hatchet | nát | nata | *natə |
| heart | kwokoyyang , kwokáy | kokoro | *kəkərə |
| heats with fire | tahí | tak | *taka |
| high | talak | take / taka | *takar |
| holds | motó, moti | mot | *mətə |
| hot | tew tos / toso / tusu , tusi | atu-si | *ətu |
| husk | kephí | kabi | *kaŋpiri |
| imposes | sikhó , sikpu | sik | *sik |
| indeed | kús | koso | *kɨsə = *kɨ + *sə |
| inserts | pak | pak " | *pak |
| ká | ka | *ka | |
| island | syem | sima , sime | *sima |
| jar | twok | tuki | *toki |
| just | tamón / tamóyn | damwi | *tam |
| late | nuc | noti | *nɨc |
| loves | kwoy | kwopwi | *kopo |
| lurks | swúm | sum | *sum |
| magpie | kachí | kasa-sagi | *kacɨ , + *saŋi |
| meshes | elk , modern korean wolk | or | *ər |
| mold | kwomphwúy | kabwi | *kənpom |
| mother | émí / émanim | omo | *əmə |
| mows | kal | kar | *kara |
| much | manhó man | mane-si, amane-si | *mana + *i |
| now | imúy, imuysye | ima | *imaj / *ima |
| odor | kwusu | kusa-si | *kusa |
| only | spwun | sapey | *sapɨn |
| opens | akwoy | ak | *ak |
| picks up | tul | tor | *tɨr |
| pigeon | pitwulí, pitwulki | patwo | *pato |
| place | tóy | te | *təj |
| prepares water | kóm | kum | *kɨmo |
| proceeds | pek | poka | *pək ,
|
| rain | *mah | ama / ame | *əmaŋ |
| raptor | may | mey | *mari |
| rubs | moncí, moní | mom | *məm |
| same | kóthó, kót, kotho | goto si | *kətə |
| sea | patáh | wata | *wat-a |
| seaweed | mól | mo, mey | *mər |
| section | kic | kida / kita | *kinca |
| sent out | pwonáy | panas / panat | *pə-na |
| sets it down | swuy | suwe | *suwu |
| shape | kací | kata | *kacaj / kaca |
| shines | pozóy | posi | *pəsə |
| shuts in | kóm | komor | *kəmə |
| sidelines | yehúy / yehoy | yoke | *jəkə-i |
| ke | ki | *kə , < *kə | |
| situation | pa | pa | *pa |
| skewers | kwoc kwoc | kusi | *koc ,
|
| skin | kaphól , kepcil | kapa | *kapa |
| small bamboo | sasól | sasa | *sasa |
| small piece | cwokak | sukwo-si | *cok |
| snake | póyyám / póyam | peymi | *pəjami |
| soaks through | súmúy | some | *sɨmɨ |
| sour | soy, swuy | suyur | *sɨju |
| speaks | íp | ip | *ip |
| spider | kemúy | kumo | *komo |
| splits it | kask | sak | *sak |
| stale | kwut | kutar | *kut |
| suits for use | psú | pusap | *pusa |
| sun | hóy | ka / key , koyomi | *xəj |
| swamp | nwup | numa | *nu |
| swells | pulu / pull | puye | *purɨr |
| takes in | tothwó , thi , tho | tatak, tatakap | *takə ,
|
| that | so | so | *sə ) |
| this | ku | ko | *kɨ |
| time period | woláy | wori | *orɨj |
| time when | cek, cey | toki | *ceki |
| together | tamós | tomo | *təmə + pk *s |
| uproar | sawónaw | sawak , sawa'-sawa | *sawə |
| vacant | pwuy | pima | *pi |
| valued | pum | pome | *pɨm |
| walks | ke:t- | kati | *katu |
| wasp | pátólí | pati | *pator |
| waterlogged | mol | mor , mor | *mər |
| wears | kís | ki | *ki |
| weaves | pcó | pata | *pəca |
| wet highland | swúp, swuphúl, swúh | sapa | *sɨpa |
| what | musúk musu < *musuk | mosi | *mɨsɨŋ |
| whether | na | na | *na |
| wild field | nwón | nwo | *non or *no |
| wishes | pólá- | por- | *pə-ara- |
| woman | myenól, myenólí, myenúlí | mye < Proto-Japanese *me | *me |
| wood | kuluh | kwi < *kəj | *kɨr |
| word | kolochí , kol , ilkhot/l | koto , katar | *kətə |
| wraps | cwúm, cwumekwúy | tum | *cum |
Although fewer in number, there have been also comparisons between stages other than Old Japanese and Middle Korean:
| Keyword | Koreanic | Japonic | Proposed Proto-Japanese-Korean |
| aní | PJ *an | *an | |
| deep | NK phwuk | OJ puka si | *puka |
| numb | ENK kwop | OJ kopor | *kəpə |
| slope | ENK swok | OJ saka | *səka |
| soaks | ENK chwuk | OJ tuke | *cuku |
| traps | ENK kali | OJ kar | *kara |
| ground | MK mith | PJ *mita | *mita |
| PK *a | OJ a | *a | |
| land | PK *na | pre-OJ *na | *na |
| deceived | MK swok , swokí | MJ sukas | *sok |
| dreams | MJ skwú | MJ suk , suki | *sɨku |
In addition to the above, there may be a relation between the words for morning. A historical variant in Korean may have been pronounced "asa". There is also a minority theory attributing the name of the city Nara to a loanword from Korean.
Phonetically, Korean and Japanese have a similarly limited inventory of vowel sounds, and both Japanese and old Korean make use of vowel length.
Korean particles and polite grammatical ending conjugations can sometimes share a superficial similarity with Japanese. The Japanese particle が is similar to the particle 가 in function and sound. The informal and impolite conjugation of Korean's Copula 야 is similar to the dialectal informal copula や in Japanese.
Functionally, some peculiar aspects of particles and particle usage are also the same in both languages. For example, the particles 도 and も not only share an inclusive function, they also both function to emphasize sheer lack in negative sentences, or sheer intensity in positive sentences. 에 and へ have similar sounds, and one of 에's usages is similar to へ. Particles are also used in the same way to form basic vocabulary words. I.e., 도 and も in the words for *no one*, and the similar sounding 가 and か particle sometimes adding an unknown/questioning element to a word to form the equivalent meaning to English *some*,.
However, some percentage of vocabulary in any language may be expected to resemble vocabulary in any other language to a certain extent through random coincidence. The likelihood that a word in one language will be perceived as resembling a word in another language is inversely correlated with the number of phonemes in the word and positively correlated with the degree of overlap in the languages' phonological systems.
Numerals
Similarities have been drawn between the four attested numerals of Goguryeo, an ancient Korean relative, and its equivalents in Old Japanese.| Numeral | Goguryeo | Old Japanese |
| 3 | mil | mi1 |
| 5 | uc | itu |
| 7 | na-nin | nana |
| 10 | dok | to2 / to2wo |
Note: See Jōdai Tokushu Kanazukai for information on Old Japanese subscript notation.
Writing
Both languages use, to some extent, a combination of native scripts and Chinese characters.Korean is mostly written in the Korean featural alphabet. The traditional hanja are sometimes used in South Korea, but only for specific purposes such as to clarify homophones, linguistic or historic study, artistic expression, legal documents, and newspapers. Native Korean words do not use hanja anymore. In North Korea, the hanja have been largely suppressed in an attempt to remove Sinic influence, although they are still used in some cases and the number of hanja taught in North Korean schools is greater than that of South Korean schools.
Japanese is written with a combination of kanji and kana. Unlike Korean hanja, however, kanji can be used to write both Sino-Japanese words and native Japanese words.
Historically, both Korean and Japanese were written solely with Chinese characters, with the writing experiencing a gradual mutation through centuries into its modern form.