Democracy-Dictatorship Index


Democracy-Dictatorship, index of democracy and dictatorship or simply the DD index or the DD datasets refers to the binary measure of democracy and dictatorship first proposed by Adam Przeworski et al., and further developed and maintained by Cheibub, Gandhi, and Vreeland. Though the most recent data set is only updated for 2008, there is planning by Cheibub to update it to the present year.
Based on the regime binary classification idea proposed by Alvarez in 1996, and the Democracy and Development proposed by Przeworski et al., Cheibub, Gandhi, and Vreeland developed a six-fold regime classification scheme, resulting what the authors called as the DD datasets.
The DD dataset covers the annual data points of 199 countries from 1946 to 2008. The figures at the left show the results in 1998 and 2008.

Six-fold regime classification scheme and its rules

The DD index first classifies the regimes into two types: democracies and dictatorships. For democracies, it categorizes them into three types: parliamentary, semi-presidential and presidential democracies. For dictatorships, monarchic, military and civilian dictatorship.
Based on a "minimalist" theory of democracy, the index relies on rules regarding the existence of competitive elections. Resorting to democratic concepts by Karl Popper and Joseph Schumpeter, Przeworski defended the minimalist approach, citing Popper that "the only system in which citizens can get rid of governments without bloodshed."

Four rules

For a regime to be considered as a democracy by the DD scheme, it must meet the requirement of four rules below:
Some regimes may meet the first three rules, but lack an alternation in power in its historical past; these regimes are classified as dictatorships because of cases where the incumbent only allows elections as long as they keep winning, and would refuse to step down if they lost. However, since they might also give up power willingly, the regime is marked with a type II value to signal potential classification errors where a democratic regime may be falsely classified as dictatorship.. This does not indicate cases of semi-democracy or semi-dictatorship.. The authors acknowledged that the last rule is more complicated to implement, but stated that it helps researchers to control potential errors and removes subjective judgement from the classification.

Countries

The Democracy-Dictatorship Index has the main regime types of "democracy" and "dictatorship" and three sub-types for each as well. Democracies can be either parliamentary, semi-presidential, or presidential and dictatorships can be civilian, military, or royal. Many countries which are seen as otherwise democratic are dictatorships because there has yet to be an alternation in power since their incumbent government has never lost an election. Therefore, it is impossible to know if the regime is a democracy or a dictatorship, so DD Index considers them dictatorships until an alternation in power occurs.
RegimeTypeSubtypeReason for Dictatorship
AFGDictatorshipCivilian Dictatorship4. No alternation in power
ALBDemocracyParliamentary Democracy
DZADictatorshipCivilian Dictatorship4. No alternation in power
ANDDemocracyParliamentary Democracy
AGODictatorshipCivilian Dictatorship1. Executive not elected
ATGDemocracyParliamentary Democracy
ARGDemocracyPresidential Democracy
ARMDemocracySemi-Presidential Democracy
AUSDemocracyParliamentary Democracy
AUTDemocracySemi-Presidential Democracy
AZEDictatorshipCivilian Dictatorship4. No alternation in power
BHSDemocracyParliamentary Democracy
BHRDictatorshipRoyal Dictatorship1. Executive not elected
3. No parties
BGDDictatorshipCivilian Dictatorship1. Executive not elected
2. No Legislature
3. No Legislative Parties
BRBDemocracyParliamentary Democracy
BLRDictatorshipCivilian Dictatorship
BELDemocracyParliamentary Democracy
BLZDemocracyParliamentary Democracy
BENDemocracyPresidential Democracy
BTNDemocracyParliamentary Democracy
BOLDemocracyPresidential Democracy
BIHDictatorshipCivilian Dictatorship1. Executive not elected
BWADictatorshipMilitary Dictatorship4. No alternation in power
BRADemocracyPresidential Democracy
BRNDictatorshipRoyal Dictatorship1. Executive not elected
2. Legislature not elected
3. One party
BGRDemocracySemi-Presidential Democracy
BFADictatorshipMilitary Dictatorship4. No alternation in power
BDIDemocracyPresidential Democracy
KHMDictatorshipRoyal Dictatorship
  1. Executive not elected
  2. No parties
CMRDictatorshipCivilian Dictatorship4. No alternation in power
CANDemocracyParliamentary Democracy
CPVDemocracySemi-Presidential Democracy
CAFDictatorshipMilitary Dictatorship4. No alternation in power
TCDDictatorshipMilitary Dictatorship4. No alternation in power
CHLDemocracyPresidential Democracy
CHNDictatorshipCivilian Dictatorship3. All parties are in regime
COLDemocracyPresidential Democracy
COMDemocracyPresidential Democracy
COGDictatorshipMilitary Dictatorship4. No alternation in power
CRIDemocracyPresidential Democracy
CIVDictatorshipCivilian Dictatorship
HRVDemocracySemi-Presidential Democracy
CUBDictatorshipCivilian Dictatorship3. Legally single party state
CYPDemocracyPresidential Democracy
CZEDemocracyParliamentary Democracy
CODDictatorshipCivilian Dictatorship4. No alternation in power
DNKDemocracyParliamentary Democracy
DJIDictatorshipCivilian Dictatorship3. One legislative party
DMADemocracyParliamentary Democracy
DOMDemocracyPresidential Democracy
TLSDemocracySemi-Presidential Democracy
ECUDemocracyPresidential Democracy
EGYDictatorshipMilitary Dictatorship4. No alternation in power
SLVDemocracyPresidential Democracy
GNQDictatorshipMilitary Dictatorship4. No alternation in power
ERIDictatorshipCivilian Dictatorship1. Executive not elected2. Legislature not elected
3. All parties banned
4.. No alternation in power
ESTDemocracyParliamentary Democracy
ETHDictatorshipCivilian Dictatorship3. All parties are in regime
4. No alternation in power
FJIDictatorshipMilitary Dictatorship1. Executive not elected
2. No Legislature
3. No Legislative parties
FINDemocracySemi-Presidential Democracy
FRADemocracySemi-Presidential Democracy
GABDictatorshipCivilian Dictatorship4. No alternation in power
GMBDictatorshipMilitary Dictatorship4. No alternation in power
GEODemocracySemi-Presidential Democracy
DEUDemocracyParliamentary Democracy
GHADemocracyPresidential Democracy
GRCDemocracyParliamentary Democracy
GRDDemocracyParliamentary Democracy
GTMDemocracyPresidential Democracy
GINDictatorshipMilitary Dictatorship1. Executive not elected
GNBDemocracySemi-Presidential Democracy
GUYDictatorshipCivilian Dictatorship4. No alternation in power
HTIDictatorshipCivilian Dictatorship4. No alternation in power
HNDDemocracyPresidential Democracy
HUNDemocracyParliamentary Democracy
ISLDemocracySemi-Presidential Democracy
INDDemocracyParliamentary Democracy
IDNDemocracyPresidential Democracy
IRNDictatorshipCivilian Dictatorship1. Executive not elected
3. No Legislative parties
IRQDictatorshipMilitary Dictatorship3. All parties in regime
IRLDemocracySemi-Presidential Democracy
ISRDemocracyParliamentary Democracy
ITADemocracyParliamentary Democracy
JAMDemocracyParliamentary Democracy
JPNDemocracyParliamentary Democracy
JORDictatorshipRoyal Dictatorship1. Executive not elected
KAZDictatorshipCivilian Dictatorship4. No alternation in power
KENDemocracyPresidential Democracy
KIRDemocracyParliamentary Democracy
KWTDictatorshipRoyal Dictatorship1. Executive not elected
3. All parties legally banned
KGZDemocracySemi-Presidential Democracy
LAODictatorshipMilitary Dictatorship3. Legally single party state
LVADemocracyParliamentary Democracy
LBNDictatorshipMilitary Dictatorship
LSODictatorshipCivilian Dictatorship4. No alternation in power
LBRDemocracyPresidential Democracy
LBYDictatorshipMilitary Dictatorship1. Executive not elected
2. Legislature is appointed
3. No parties
LIEDemocracyParliamentary Democracy
LTUDemocracySemi-Presidential Democracy
LUXDemocracyParliamentary Democracy
MKDDemocracySemi-Presidential Democracy
MDGDemocracySemi-Presidential Democracy
MWIDemocracyPresidential Democracy
MYSDictatorshipCivilian Dictatorship3. All parties in regime
4. No alternation in power
MDVDemocracyPresidential Democracy
MLIDemocracySemi-Presidential Democracy
MLTDemocracyParliamentary Democracy
MHLDemocracyParliamentary Democracy
MRTDictatorshipMilitary Dictatorship1. Executive not elected
2. No Legislature
3. No Legislative parties
MUSDemocracyParliamentary Democracy
MEXDemocracyPresidential Democracy
FSMDemocracyPresidential Democracy
MDADemocracyParliamentary Democracy
MNGDemocracySemi-Presidential Democracy
MNEDictatorshipCivilian Dictatorship4. No alternation in power
MARDictatorshipRoyal Dictatorship1. Executive not elected
MOZDictatorshipCivilian Dictatorship4. No alternation in power
MMRDictatorshipMilitary Dictatorship1. Executive not elected
2. No Legislature
3. No Legislative parties
NAMDictatorshipCivilian Dictatorship4. No alternation in power
NRUDemocracyParliamentary Democracy
NPLDemocracyParliamentary Democracy
NLDDemocracyParliamentary Democracy
NZLDemocracyParliamentary Democracy
NICDemocracyPresidential Democracy
NERDemocracySemi-Presidential Democracy
NGADemocracyPresidential Democracy
PRKDictatorshipCivilian Dictatorship1. Executive not elected
NORDemocracyParliamentary Democracy
OMNDictatorshipRoyal Dictatorship1. Executive not elected
2. Legislature is closed
3. No Legislative parties
PAKDemocracyParliamentary Democracy
PLWDemocracyPresidential Democracy
PANDemocracyPresidential Democracy
PNGDemocracyParliamentary Democracy
PRYDemocracyPresidential Democracy
PERDemocracyPresidential Democracy
PHLDemocracyPresidential Democracy
POLDemocracySemi-Presidential Democracy
PRTDemocracySemi-Presidential Democracy
QATDictatorshipRoyal Dictatorship1. Executive not elected
2. Legislature not elected
3. No Legislative parties
ROUDemocracySemi-Presidential Democracy
RUSDictatorshipCivilian Dictatorship4. No alternation in power
RWADictatorshipMilitary Dictatorship4. No alternation in power
WSMDictatorshipRoyal Dictatorship4. No alternation in power
SMRDemocracyParliamentary Democracy
STPDemocracySemi-Presidential Democracy
SAUDictatorshipRoyal Dictatorship1. Executive not elected
2. Legislature not elected
3. No Legislative parties
SENDemocracySemi-Presidential Democracy
SRBDemocracySemi-Presidential Democracy
SYCDictatorshipCivilian Dictatorship4. No alternation in power
SLEDemocracyPresidential Democracy
SGPDictatorshipCivilian Dictatorship
SVKDemocracySemi-Presidential Democracy
SVNDemocracyParliamentary Democracy
SLBDemocracyParliamentary Democracy
SOMDictatorshipCivilian Dictatorship2. Legislature not elected
3. No Legislative parties
ZAFDictatorshipCivilian Dictatorship4. No alternation in power
KORDemocracyPresidential Democracy
ESPDemocracyParliamentary Democracy
LKADemocracyPresidential Democracy
KNADemocracyParliamentary Democracy
LCADemocracyParliamentary Democracy
VCTDemocracyParliamentary Democracy
SDNDictatorshipMilitary Dictatorship1. Executive not elected
2. Legislature not elected
SURDemocracyPresidential Democracy
SWZDictatorshipRoyal Dictatorship1. Executive not elected
3. Legally single party state
SWEDemocracyParliamentary Democracy
CHEDemocracyPresidential Democracy
SYRDictatorshipMilitary Dictatorship3. All parties in regime
TWNDemocracySemi-Presidential Democracy
TJKDictatorshipCivilian Dictatorship4. No alternation in power
TZADictatorshipMilitary Dictatorship4. No alternation in power
THADemocracyParliamentary Democracy
TGODictatorshipCivilian Dictatorship4. No alternation in power
TONDictatorshipRoyal Dictatorship1. Executive not elected
2. Legislature not elected
3. All parties legally banned 4. No alternation in power
TTODemocracyParliamentary Democracy
TUNDictatorshipMilitary Dictatorship4. No alternation in power
TURDemocracyPresidential Democracy
TKMDictatorshipCivilian Dictatorship3. Legally one party state
TUVDemocracyParliamentary Democracy
UGADictatorshipCivilian Dictatorship4. No alternation in power
UKRDemocracySemi-Presidential Democracy
AREDictatorshipRoyal Dictatorship1. Executive not elected
2. No Legislature
3. No Legislative parties
GBRDemocracyParliamentary Democracy
USADemocracyPresidential Democracy
URYDemocracyPresidential Democracy
UZBDictatorshipCivilian Dictatorship3. One party
4. No alternation in power
VUTDemocracyParliamentary Democracy
VENDemocracyPresidential Democracy
VNMDictatorshipCivilian Dictatorship1. Executive not elected
3. One party
YEMDictatorshipMilitary Dictatorship4. No alternation in power
ZMBDictatorshipCivilian Dictatorship4. No alternation in power
ZWEDictatorshipCivilian Dictatorship4. No alternation in power

Democracy classification

Democracies are classified by the rules in which executives can be appointed or removed and can be either presidential, mixed or semi-presidential, or parliamentary. It is important to note that these names do not have to correspond to the official or colloquial titles of any of the countries offices. For example, DD could classify a country which has a legislative assembly whose official name is "the parliament" but still classify it in any of the three categories. The classification depends on the rules outlining the relationship between a country's government, legislative assembly, and head of state. The government is the chief executive the heads of the executive departments. The chief executive can take many names including chancellor, prime minister, or premier and the heads of the executive departments can bear different names and be called different things. In the United Kingdom, for example, the chief executive is the prime minister, and the ministers are the heads of the executive departments, which together compose the government.

Legislative responsibility

The first distinction made is whether a country has a government has legislative responsibility, i.e. whether a majority vote in the legislature can remove the sitting government without cause. The required majority needed to remove the sitting government varies between countries but is termed a vote of no confidence. Some countries require that the vote of no confidence also specify who is going to replace the sitting government to minimize the time without an interim government, essentially replacing one government with another. This type of vote is termed a constructive vote of no confidence. Sometimes sitting governments will attach a vote of no confidence clause to a piece of legislation they want passed, effectively tying the survival of the government on the piece of legislation.

Head of state

The second distinction made is whether the head of state is popularly elected for a fixed term. Who the head of state is can vary between countries. The head of state can be unelected, and the country still classified a democracy if it still meets all four of DD's criteria as the head of state is not used to classify countries as being either democracies or dictatorships but instead to distinguish between democracies. Popularly elected means that the head of state is directly elected by the citizens or elected by an assembly which then elects them. In Germany, the head of state is elected by regional legislatures and not popularly elected. It is important to note that countries may have an office called "president" can still have the office be unelected or have the office refer to the chief executive. If the head of state is popularly elected, they are often called a president, and if they are not, they are often called a monarch. However, this can be confusing as some countries have a head of state which is elected but not popularly but is called the president. Names alone are not how DD classifies democracies. It focuses instead on the powers and responsibilities of offices to classify and not the official name. The phrase "fixed term" indicates the once the head of state is chosen, they serve a known and a limited number of years before another election is held, and they cannot be removed from the office in the meantime.
The main job of the head of state is to pick the formateur. It is the person who tries to form a government, typically immediately following an election. Some countries delegate the job of picking the formateur away one step to reduce political manipulation and so have an informateur whose job is to pick the formateur. More countries, such as Greece and Bulgaria, still delegate the power of choosing the formateur away entirely and opt for an automated process by which the head of state must choose the head of the party with the highest number of seats in the legislature as the formateur. Typically, heads of state choose the formateur as the head of the party which holds the most seats in the legislature.

Classification

The first distinction made is whether a democracy's government is responsible to the legislature. If it is not responsible, it is a presidential democracy. If it is, then a further distinction is made between democracies where the head of state is popularly elected and those where the head of state is not popularly elected. If the head of state is popularly elected for a fixed term then, the democracy is mixed or semi-presidential. If the head of state serves for life or is not popularly elected or a fixed term, then the democracy is parliamentary.
The table below offers a full list of which countries are what type of democracy. Keep note that the head of state, chief executive, government, and legislatures can have their official names be seemingly contradictory to this classification. The name a democracy gives itself or its office does not indicate what type of democracy it is.

Definitions

A presidential democracy has a government that does not need the majority support of a legislature to stay in power. A semi-presidential democracy has a government that needs the majority of support from a legislature to exist and whose head of state is popularly elected for a fixed term. Parliamentary democracy is the same as semi-presidential but has heads of state which are not popularly elected for a fixed term, typically either monarchs or officials not chosen by popular elections.

Comparison with other democracy-measuring data sets

The DD dataset is limited to 199 countries after 1946, whereas Boix, Miller, & Rosato, 2013 proposed a data set from 1800 to 2007, covering 219 countries. The 2010 version of Polity data series covers 189 countries from 1800 to 2009.
Gugiu & Centellas developed the Democracy Cluster Classification Index that integrates five democracy indicators, clustering 24 American and 39 European regimes over 30 years.