Dersim rebellion
The Dersim rebellion was an Alevi-Zaza uprising against the Turkish government in the Dersim region of eastern Turkey, which includes parts of Tunceli Province, Elazığ Province, and Bingöl Province. The rebellion was led by Seyid Riza, an Alevi-Zaza chieftain of the Yukarı Abbas Uşağı tribe. As a result of the Turkish Armed Forces campaign in 1937 and 1938 against the rebellion and its massacres of civilians, thousands of Alevi-Zazas died and many others were internally displaced.
On 23 November 2011, Turkish prime minister Recep Tayyip Erdoğan gave an apology for the Dersim massacre, describing it as "one of the most tragic events of our near history" adding that, whilst some sought to justify it as a legitimate response to events on the ground, it was in reality "an operation which was planned step by step". However, this is viewed with suspicion by some, "who see it as an opportunistic move against the main opposition party, the secular CHP."
Background
Ottoman period
and Zaza tribes, which were feudal communities led by chieftains during the Ottoman period, enjoyed a certain degree of freedom within the boundaries of the manors owned by the aghas. Local authority in these small manorial communities was in the hands of feudal lords, tribal chieftains and other dignitaries, who owned the land and ruled over the peasants who lived and worked in their real estate. However, the general political authority in the provinces, such as Dersim, was in the hands of the Ottoman government.Early republican era
Following the establishment of the Republic of Turkey in 1923, some Kurdish and Zaza tribes became unhappy about certain aspects of Atatürk's Reforms for modernising Turkey, such as secularism and land reform, and staged armed revolts that were put down by the Turkish military.Dersim had been a particularly difficult province for the Ottoman government to control, with 11 different armed rebellions between 1876 and 1923. The rebellious stance of the aghas in Dersim continued during the early years of the Republic of Turkey. Aghas in Dersim objected to losing authority in their manorial affairs and refused to pay taxes; and complaints from the provincial governors in Dersim were sent to the central government in Ankara, which favoured land reform and direct control over the country's farmlands, as well as state planning for agricultural production. In an Interior Ministry report in 1926, it was considered necessary to use force against the aghas of Dersim. On November 1, 1936, during a speech in parliament, Atatürk described Dersim as Turkey's most important interior problem.
Law on Resettlement
The Turkification process in Turkey began with the Turkish National Assembly passing the 1934 Law on Resettlement. Its measures included the forced relocation of people within the country, with the aim of promoting cultural homogeneity. In 1935, the Tunceli Law was passed to apply the Resettlement Law to the newly named region of Tunceli, previously known as Dersim and populated by Kurmanci-speaking and Zaza-speaking Alevis. This area had a reputation for being rebellious, having been the scene of eleven separate periods of armed conflict over the previous 40 years."Tunceli" law
The Dersim region included the Tunceli Province whose name was changed from Dersim to Tunceli with the "Law on Administration of the Tunceli Province", no. 2884 of 25 December 1935 on January 4, 1936.Fourth General Inspectorate
In order to consolidate its authority in the process of Turkification of religious and ethnic minorities, the Turkish Grand National Assembly passed the Law No. 1164 on the 25 June 1927 which allowed the state to establish Inspectorates-General. Following the First Inspectorate-General, the Second Inspectorate-General and the Third Inspectorate-General, the Fourth Inspectorate-General was established in January 1936, in the traditional Dersim region, which includes Tunceli Province, Elazığ Province and Bingöl Province. The Fourth Inspectorate-General was governed by a "Governor Commander" within a military authority. He was given wide-ranging authorities in juridical, military and civilian matters. He also had the authority to resettle people or exile people who lived in the city when necessary.On 1 November 1936, during a speech in the parliament Atatürk acknowledged the situation in Dersim as Turkey's most important internal problem. Firstly, military stations were built in the strategical zones.
The Rebellion
After the "Tunceli" Law, the Turkish government built military observation posts in the centers of districts such as Kahmut, Sin, Karaoğlan, Amutka, Danzik, and Haydaran.Following public meetings in January 1937, a letter of protest against the law was written to be sent to the local governor. According to Kurdish sources, the emissaries of the letter were arrested and executed. In May, a group of local people ambushed a police convoy in response, the first act of a localised conflict.
Meeting at Halbori cells
Seyid Riza, the chieftain of Yukarı Abbas Uşağı, sent his followers to the Haydaran, Demenan, Yusufan, and Kureyşan tribes to make an alliance.According to Turkish authorities, on March 20–21, 1937, at 23:00 hrs, the Demenan and Haydaran tribes broke a bridge connecting Pah and Kahmut in the Harçik Valley. The Inspector General gave the order to prepare for action to the 2nd Mobile Gendarmerie Battalion at Pülümür, the 3rd Mobile Gendarmerie Battalion at Pülür, the 9th Gendarmier Battalion at Mazkirt, and the Mobile Gendarmerie Regiment at Hozat, and sent one infantry company of the 9th Mobile Gendarmier Battalion to Pah.
Turkish military operations
Around 25,000 troops were deployed to quell the rebellion. This task was substantially completed by the summer and the leaders of the rebellion, including tribal leader Sayiid Riza, were hanged. However, remnants of the rebel forces continued to resist and the number of troops in the region was doubled. The area was also bombed from the air. The rebels continued to resist until the region was pacified in October 1938.According to Osman Pamukoğlu, a general in Turkish Army in the 1990s, Atatürk had given the operational order himself.
1937
First Tunceli Operation
On September 10–12, 1937, Seyit Rıza came to the government building of the Erzincan Province for peace talks and was arrested. On the next day, he was transferred to the headquarters of the General Inspectorate at Elazığ and hanged with 6 of his fellows on November 15–18, 1937 Ihsan Sabri Çağlayangil, who would later become foreign ministerarranged the trials and hanging of the leaders of the rebellion and some of their sons.The victims were:
- Seyit Rıza
- Resik Hüseyin
- Seyit Hüseyin
- Fındık Aga
- Hasan Aga
- Hasan
- Ali Aga
1938
Second Tunceli Operation
The prime minister, Celal Bayar had agreed to an attack on the Dersim rebels. The operation started on January 2, 1938 and finished on August 7, 1938.Third Tunceli Operation
The Third Tunceli Operation was carried out between August 10–17, 1938.Sweep operations
Sweep operations that started on September 6, were continued for 17 days.Aerial operations
Turkish planes flew numerous sorties against the rebels during the rebellion. Among the pilots was Kemal Atatürk's adopted daughter, Sabiha Gökçen, the first Turkish female fighter pilot. A report of the General Staff mentioned the "serious damage" that had been caused by her 50 kg bomb, upon a group of fleeing bandits.Muhsin Batur, engaged in operations for about two months over Dersim, stated in his memoirs that he wanted to avoid talking about this part of his life. Nuri Dersimi claimed that the Turkish air force bombed the district with poisonous gas in 1938.
Civilian massacres
According to an official report of the Fourth General Ispectorate, 13,160 civilians were killed by the Turkish Army and 11,818 people were taken into exile, depopulating the province. According to a claim by Nuri Dersimi, many tribesmen were shot dead after surrendering, and women and children were locked into haysheds which were then set on fire. According to McDowall, 40,000 people were killed.Hüseyin Aygün, a jurist author, wrote in his book Dersim 1938 and Obligatory Settlement:
Numbers killed
The contemporary British estimate of the number of deaths was 40,000, although this number could be exaggerated. It has been suggested that the total number of deaths may be 7,594, over 10,000, or over 13,000. Around 3,000 people were forcibly deported from Dersim.Ethnocide
The policy of population resettlement under the 1934 Law on Resettlement was a key component of the turkification process that began to be implemented first with the Armenian genocide in 1915 as Turkey transitioned from a pluralistic, multi-ethnic society to a "unidimensional Turkish nation-state". Scholar İsmail Beşikçi has argued that the Turkish government actions in Dersim were genocide. Martin van Bruinessen has argued that the actions of the government were not genocide, under international law, because they were not aimed at the extermination of a people, but at resettlement and suppression. Van Bruinessen has instead talked of an ethnocide directed against the local language and identity. According to Van Bruinessen, the 1934 law created "the legal framework for a policy of ethnocide." Dersim was one of the first territories where this policy was applied.In March 2011, a Turkish court ruled that the actions of the Turkish government in Dersim could not be considered genocide according to the law because they were not directed systematically against an ethnic group.