Inupiaq language
Inupiaq, Inupiat, Inupiatun or Alaskan Inuit, is a group of dialects of the Inuit languages, spoken by the Iñupiat people in northern and northwestern Alaska, and part of the Northwest Territories. The Inupiat language is a member of the Inuit-Yupik-Unangan language family, and is closely related to Inuit languages of Canada and Greenland. There are roughly 2,000 speakers. It is considered a threatened language with most speakers at or above the age of 40. Iñupiaq is an official language of the State of Alaska.
The name is also rendered as Inupiatun, Iñupiatun, Iñupiaq, Inyupiaq, Inyupiat, Inyupeat, Inyupik, and Inupik.
The main varieties of the Iñupiaq language are Northern Alaskan Iñupiaq and Seward Peninsula Iñupiaq.
The Iñupiaq language has been in decline since contact with English in the late 19th century. American colonization and the legacy of boarding schools have created a situation today where a small minority of Iñupiat speak the Iñupiaq language. There is, however, revitalization work underway today in several communities.
History
The Iñupiaq language is an Inuit-Yupik-Unangan language, also known as Eskimo-Aleut, has been spoken in the northern regions of Alaska for as long as 5,000 years. Between 1,000 and 800 years ago, Inuit peoples migrated east from Alaska to Canada and Greenland, eventually occupying the entire Arctic coast and much of the surrounding inland areas. The Iñupiaq dialects are the most conservative forms of the Inuit language, with less linguistic change than the other Inuit languages.In the mid to late 19th century, Russian, British, and American colonists would make contact with Inupiat people. In 1885, the American territorial government appointed Rev. Sheldon Jackson as General Agent of Education. Under his administration, Inupiat people were educated in English-only environments, forbidding the use of Iñupiaq and other indigenous languages of Alaska. After decades of English-only education, with strict punishment if heard speaking Iñupiaq, after the 1970s, most Inupiat did not pass the Iñupiaq language on to their children, for fear of them being punished for speaking their language.
In 1972, the Alaska Legislature passed legislation mandating that if "a by at least 15 pupils whose primary language is other than English, shall have at least one teacher who is fluent in the native language".
Today, the University of Alaska Fairbanks offers bachelor's degrees in Iñupiaq language and culture, while a preschool/kindergarten-level Iñupiaq immersion school named Nikaitchuat Ilisaġviat teaches grades PreK-1st grade in Kotzebue.
In 2014, Iñupiaq became an official language of the State of Alaska, alongside English and nineteen other indigenous languages.
Dialects
There are four main dialect divisions and these can be organized within two larger dialect collections:Seward Peninsula Iñupiaq is spoken on the Seward Peninsula.
Northern Alaskan Iñupiaq is spoken from the Northwest Arctic and North Slope regions of Alaska to the Mackenzie Delta in Northwest Territories, Canada.
| Dialect collection | Dialect | Subdialect | Tribal nation | Populated areas |
| Seward Peninsula Iñupiaq | Bering Strait | Diomede | Iŋalikmiut | Little Diomede Island, Big Diomede Island until the late 1940s |
| Seward Peninsula Iñupiaq | Bering Strait | Wales | Kiŋikmiut, Tapqaġmiut | Wales, Shishmaref, Brevig Mission |
| Seward Peninsula Iñupiaq | Bering Strait | King Island | Ugiuvaŋmiut | King Island until the early 1960s, Nome |
| Seward Peninsula Iñupiaq | Qawiaraq | Teller | Siñiġaġmiut, Qawiaraġmiut | Teller, Shaktoolik |
| Seward Peninsula Iñupiaq | Qawiaraq | Fish River | Iġałuiŋmiut | White Mountain, Golovin |
| Northern Alaskan Iñupiaq | Malimiutun | Kobuk | Kuuŋmiut, Kiitaaŋmiut , Siilim Kaŋianiġmiut, Nuurviŋmiut, Kuuvaum Kaŋiaġmiut, Akuniġmiut, Nuataaġmiut, Napaaqtuġmiut, Kivalliñiġmiut | Kobuk River Valley, Selawik |
| Northern Alaskan Iñupiaq | Malimiutun | Kotzebue | Pittaġmiut, Kaŋiġmiut, Qikiqtaġruŋmiut | Kotzebue, Noatak |
| Northern Alaskan Iñupiaq | North Slope / Siḷaliñiġmiutun | Common North Slope | Utuqqaġmiut, Siliñaġmiut , Kakligmiut , Kuulugruaġmiut, Ikpikpagmiut, Kuukpigmiut | |
| Northern Alaskan Iñupiaq | North Slope / Siḷaliñiġmiutun | Point Hope | Tikiġaġmiut | Point Hope |
| Northern Alaskan Iñupiaq | North Slope / Siḷaliñiġmiutun | Point Barrow | Utqiaġvigmiut | |
| Northern Alaskan Iñupiaq | North Slope / Siḷaliñiġmiutun | Anaktuvuk Pass | Nunamiut | Anaktuvuk Pass |
| Northern Alaskan Iñupiaq | North Slope / Siḷaliñiġmiutun | Uummarmiutun | Uummarmiut | Aklavik, Inuvik |
Extra geographical information:
Bering Strait dialect:
The native population of the Big Diomede Island was moved to the Siberian mainland after World War II. The following generation of the population spoke Central Siberian Yupik or Russian. The entire population of King Island moved to Nome in the early 1960s. The Bering Strait dialect might also be spoken in Teller on the Seward Peninsula.
Qawiaraq dialect:
A dialect of Qawiaraq is spoken in Nome. A dialect of Qawariaq may also be spoken in Koyuk, Mary's Igloo, Council, and Elim. The Teller sub-dialect may be spoken in Unalakleet.
Malimiutun dialect:
Both sub-dialects can be found in Buckland, Koyuk, Shaktoolik, and Unalakleet. A dialect of Malimiutun may be spoken in Deering, Kiana, Noorvik, Shungnak, and Ambler. The Malimiutun sub-dialects have also been classified as "Southern Malimiut" and "Northern Malimiut" found in "other villages".
North Slope dialect:
Common North Slope is "a mix of the various speech forms formerly used in the area". The Point Barrow dialect was "spoken only by a few elders" in 2010. A dialect of North Slope is also spoken in Kivalina, Point Lay, Wainwright, Atqasuk, Utqiagvik, Nuiqsut, and Barter Island.
Phonology
Iñupiaq dialects differ widely between consonants used. However, consonant clusters of more than two consonants in a row do not occur. A word may not begin nor end with a consonant cluster.All Iñupiaq dialects have three basic vowel qualities: /a i u/. There is currently no instrumental work to determine what allophones may be linked to these vowels. All three vowels can be long or short, giving rise to a system of six phonemic vowels /a aː i iː u uː/. Long vowels are represented by double letters in the orthography: ⟨aa⟩, ⟨ii⟩, ⟨uu⟩. The following diphthongs occur: /ai ia au ua iu ui/. No more than two vowels occur in a sequence in Iñupiaq.
The Bering strait dialect has a forth vowel /e/, which preserves the fourth proto-Eskimo vowel reconstructed as */ə/. In the other dialects, proto-Eskimo */e/ has merged with the closed front vowel /i/. The merged /i/ is referred to as the “strong /i/”, which causes palatalization when preceding consonant clusters in the North Slope dialect. The other /i/ is referred to as “the weak /i/”. Weak and strong /i/s are not differentiated in orthography, making it impossible to tell which ⟨i⟩ represents palatalization “short of looking at other processes which depend on the distinction between two i's or else examining data from other Eskimo languages”. However, it can be assumed that, within a word, if a palatal consonant is preceded by an ⟨i⟩, it is strong. If an alveolar consonant is preceded by an ⟨i⟩, it is weak.
Words begin with a stop, the fricative /s/, nasals /m n/, with a vowel, or the semivowel /j/. Loanwords, proper names, and exclamations may begin with any segment in both the Seward Peninsula dialects and the North Slope dialects . In the Uummarmiutun dialect words can also begin with /h/. For example, the word for "ear" in North Slope and Little Diomede Island dialects is siun whereas in Uummarmiutun it is hiun.
A word may end in any nasal sound, in the stops /t k q/ or in a vowel. In the North Slope dialect if a word ends with an m, and the next word begins with a stop, the m is pronounced /p/, as in aġnam tupiŋa, pronounced /aʁnap tupiŋa/
Very little information of the prosody of Iñupiaq has been collected. However, "fundamental frequency, intensity, loudness, and spectral tilt may be important" in Malimiutun. Likewise, "duration is not likely to be important in Malimiut Iñupiaq stress/syllable prominence".
North Slope Iñupiaq:
For North Slope IñupiaqThe voiceless stops /p/ /t/ /k/ and /q/ are not aspirated. This may or may not be true for other dialects as well.
/c/ is derived from a palatalized and unreleased /t/.
Assimilation:
Two consonants cannot appear together unless they share the manner of articulation. The only exception to this rule is having a voiced fricative consonant appear with a nasal consonant. Since all stops in North Slope are voiceless, a lot of needed assimilation arises from having to assimilate a voiceless stop to a voiced consonant.This process is realized by assimilating the first consonant in the cluster to a consonant that: 1) has the same has the same manner of articulation as the second consonant that it is assimilating to. If the second consonant is a lateral or approximate, the first consonant will assimilate to a lateral or approximate if possible. If not the first consonant will assimilate to a fricative. Therefore:
| North Slope | IPA | English |
| Kamik + niaq + te → kamigniaqtuq or → kamiŋniaqtuq | /kn/ → /ɣn/ or → /ŋn/ | "to put boots on" + "will" + "he" → he will put the boots on |
| iḷisaq + niaq + tuq → iḷisaġniaqtuq | /qn/ → /ʁn/ or → /ɴ/ * | "to study" + "will" + "he" → he will study |
| aqpat + niaq + tuq → aqpanniaqtuq | /tn/ → /nn/ | "to run" + "will" + "he" → he will run |
| makit + man → makinman | /tm/ → /nm/ | "to stand up" + "when he" → When he stood up |
| makit + łuni → makiłłuni | /tɬ/ → /ɬɬ/ | "to stand" + "by ---ing" → standing up, he... |
* The sound /ɴ/ is not represented in the orthography. Therefore the spelling ġn can be pronounced as /ʁn/ or /ɴn/. In both examples 1 and 2, since voiced fricatives can appear with nasal consonants, both consonant clusters are possible.
The stops /t̚ʲ/ and /t/ do not have a corresponding voiced fricative, therefore they will assimilate to the closest possible area of articulation. In this case, the /t̚ʲ/ will assimilate to the voiced approximant /j/. The /t/ will assimilate into a. Therefore:
| North Slope | IPA | English |
| siksriit + guuq → siksriiyguuq | /t̚ʲɣ/ → /jɣ/ | "squirrels" + "it is said that" → it is said that squirrels |
| aqpat + vik → aqparvik | /tv/ → /ʐv/ | "to run" + "place" → race track |
In the case of the second consonant being a lateral, the lateral will again be treated as a fricative. Therefore:
| North Slope | IPA | English |
| aġnam + lu → aġnamlu or → aġnavlu | /ml/ → /ml/ or → /vl/ | " the woman" + "and" → and the woman |
| aŋun + lu → aŋunlu or → aŋullu | /nl/ → /nl/ or → /vl/ | "the man" + "and" → "and the man |
Since voiced fricatives can appear with nasal consonants, both consonant clusters are possible.
The sounds and are not represented in the orthography. Therefore, like the /ɴn/ example shown above, assimilation still occurs while the spelling remains the same. Therefore:
| North Slope | IPA | English |
| miqłiqtuq | /qɬ/ → | child |
| siksrik | /kʂ/ → /xʂ/ | squirrel |
| tavsi | /vs/ → /fs/ | belt |
These general features of assimilation are not shared with Uummarmiut, Malimiutun, or the Seward Peninsula dialects. Malimiutun and the Seward Peninsula dialects "preserve voiceless stops when they are etymological ". Compare:
| North Slope | Malimiutun | Seward Peninsula dialects | Uummarmiut | English |
| nivliqsuq | nipliqsuq | nivliraqtuq | makes a sound | |
| igniq | ikniq | ikniq | fire | |
| annuġaak | atnuġaak | atar̂aaq | garment |
Palatalization
The following patterns of palatalization can occur in North Slope Iñupiaq: /t/ → /t̚ʲ/ or /s/; → ; → ; and /n/ →. Palatalization only occurs when one of these four alveolars is preceded by a strong i. Compare:| Type of I | North Slope | IPA | English |
| strong | qimmiq → qimmit | /qimːiq/ → /qimːit̚ʲ/ | dog → dogs |
| weak | tumi → tumit | /tumi/ → /tumit/ | footprint → footprints |
| strong | iġġi → iġġiḷu | /iʁːi/ → /iʁːiʎu/ | mountain → and a mountain |
| weak | tumi → tumilu | /tumi/ → /tumilu/ | footprint → and a footprint |
Please note that the sound /t̚ʲ/ does not have its own letter, and is simply spelled with a T t. The IPA transcription of the above vowels may be incorrect.
If a t that precedes a vowel is palatalized, it will become an /s/. The strong i affects the entire consonant cluster, palatalizing all consonants that can be palatalized within the cluster. Therefore:
| Type of I | North Slope | IPA | English |
| strong | qimmiq + tigun → qimmisigun | /qimmiq/ + /tiɣun/ → /qimːisiɣun/ | dog + amongst the plural things → amongst, in the midst of dogs |
| strong | puqik + tuq → puqiksuq | /puqik/ + /tuq/ → /puqiksuq/ | to be smart + she/he/it → she/he/it is smart |
Note in the first example, due to the nature of the suffix, the /q/ is dropped. Like the first set of examples, the IPA transcriptions of above vowels may be incorrect.
If a strong i precedes geminate consonant, the entire elongated consonant becomes palatalized. For Example: niġḷḷaturuq and tikiññiaqtuq.
Further strong versus weak ''i'' processes
The strong i can be paired with a vowel. The weak i on the other hand cannot. The weak i will become an a if it is paired with another vowel, or if the consonant before the i becomes geminate. This rule may or may not apply to other dialects. Therefore:| Type of I | North Slope | IPA | English |
| weak | tumi → tumaa | /tumi/ → /tumaː/ | footprint → her/his footprint |
| strong | qimmiq → qimmia | /qimːiq/ → /qimːia/ | dog → her/his dog |
| weak | kamik → kammak | /kamik/ → /kamːak/ | boot → two boots |
Like the first two sets of examples, the IPA transcriptions of above vowels may be incorrect.
Uummarmiutun sub-dialect:
For the Uummarmiutun sub-dialect:* Ambiguities: This sound might exist in the Uummarmiutun sub dialect.
Phonological rules
The following are the phonological rules:The /f/ is always found as a geminate.
The /j/ cannot be geminated, and is always found between vowels or preceded by /v/. In rare cases it can be found at the beginning of a word.
The /h/ is never geminate, and can appear as the first letter of the word, between vowels, or preceded by /k/ /ɬ/ or /q/.
The and are always geminate or preceded by a /t/.
The can appear between vowels, preceded by consonants /k/ /q/ /t/ or /v/, or it can be followed by, /v/,.
Seward Peninsula Iñupiaq:
For Seward Peninsula Iñupiaq:Unlike the other Iñupiaq dialects, the Seward Peninsula dialect has a mid central vowel e.
Gemination
In North Slope Iñupiaq, all consonants represented by orthography can be geminated, except for the sounds /s/ /h/ and. Seward Peninsula Iñupiaq likewise can have all consonants represented by orthography appear as geminates, except for /b/ /h/ /w/ /z/ and. Gemination is caused by suffixes being added to a consonant, so that the consonant is found between two vowels.Writing systems
Iñupiaq was first written when explorers first arrived in Alaska and began recording words in the native languages. They wrote by adapting the letters of their own language to writing the sounds they were recording. Spelling was often inconsistent, since the writers invented it as they wrote. Unfamiliar sounds were often confused with other sounds, so that, for example, 'q' was often not distinguished from 'k' and long consonants or vowels were not distinguished from short ones.Along with the Alaskan and Siberian Yupik, the Inupiat eventually adopted the Latin script that Moravian missionaries developed in Greenland and Labrador. Native Alaskans also developed a system of pictographs, which, however, died with its creators.
In 1946, Roy Ahmaogak, an Iñupiaq Presbyterian minister from Utqiagvik, worked with Eugene Nida, a member of the Summer Institute of Linguistics, to develop the current Iñupiaq alphabet based on the Latin script. Although some changes have been made since its origin—most notably the change from 'ḳ' to 'q'—the essential system was accurate and is still in use.
| A a | Ch ch | G g | Ġ ġ | H h | I i | K k | L l | Ḷ ḷ | Ł ł | Ł̣ ł̣ | M m |
| a | cha | ga | ġa | ha | i | ka | la | ḷa | ła | ł̣a | ma |
| N n | Ñ ñ | Ŋ ŋ | P p | Q q | R r | S s | Sr sr | T t | U u | V v | Y y |
| na | ña | ŋa | pa | qa | ra | sa | sra | ta | u | va | ya |
Extra letter for Kobuk dialect: ’
| A a | B b | G g | Ġ ġ | H h | I i | K k | L l | Ł ł | M m | N n | Ŋ ŋ | P p |
| a | ba | ga | ġa | ha | i | ka | la | ła | ma | na | ŋa | pa |
| Q q | R r | S s | Sr sr | T t | U u | V v | W w | Y y | Z z | Zr zr | ' | |
| qa | ra | sa | sra | ta | u | va | wa | ya | za | zra | ||
Extra letters for specific dialects:
- Diomede: e
- Qawiaraq: ch //
| A a | Ch ch | F f | G g | H h | Dj dj | I i | K k | L l | Ł ł | M m |
| a | cha | fa | ga | ha | dja | i | ka | la | ła | ma |
| N n | Ñ ñ | Ng ng | P p | Q q | R r | R̂ r̂ | T t | U u | V v | Y y |
| na | ña | ŋa | pa | qa | ra | r̂a | ta | u | va | ya |
Morphosyntax
Due the number of dialects and complexity of Iñupiaq Morphosyntax, the following section will be discussing Malimiutun morphosyntax as a representative example. Any examples from other dialects will be marked as such.Iñupiaq is a polysynthetic language, meaning that words can be extremely long, consisting of one of three stems along with one or more of three endings. The stem gives meaning to the word, whereas endings give information regarding case, mood, tense, person, plurality, etc. The stem can appear as simple or complex. In Iñupiaq a "postbase serves somewhat the same functions that adverbs, adjectives, prefixes, and suffixes do in English" along with marking various types of tenses. There are six word classes in Malimiut Inñupiaq: nouns, verbs, adverbs, pronouns, conjunctions, and interjections. All demonstratives are classified as either adverbs or pronouns.
Nominal morphology
The Iñupiaq category of number distinguishes singular, dual, and plural. The language works on an Ergative-Absolutive system, where nouns are inflected for number, several cases, and possession. Iñupiaq has nine cases, two core cases and seven oblique cases. North Slope Iñupiaq does not have the vocative case. Iñupiaq does not have a category of gender and articles.Iñupiaq Nouns can likewise be classified by Wolf A. Seiler's seven noun classes. These noun classes are "based on morphological behavior. ... have no semantic basis but are useful for case formation... stems of various classes interact with suffixes differently".
Due to the nature of the morphology, a single case can take on up to 12 endings. For example, the possessed ergative ending for a class 1a noun can take on the endings: -ma, mnuk, pta, vich, ptik, -psi, -mi, -mik, -miŋ, -ŋan, -ŋaknik, and ŋata. Therefore, only general features will be described below. For an extensive list on case endings, please see .
Absolutive case/noun stems
The subject of an intransitive sentence or the object of a transitive sentence take on the absolutive case. This case is likewise used to mark the basic form of a noun. Therefore, all the singular, dual, and plural absolutive forms serve as stems for the other oblique cases. The following chart is verified of both Malimiutun and North Slope Iñupiaq.| Endings | |
| singular | -q, -k, -n, or any vowel |
| dual | -k |
| plural | -t |
If the singular absolutive form ends with -n, it has the underlying form of -ti /tə/. This form will show in the absolutive dual and plural forms. Therefore:
tiŋmisuun → tiŋmisuutik and tiŋmisuutitRegarding nouns that have an underlying /ə/, the i will change to an a and the previous consonant will be geminated in the dual form. Therefore:
Kamik → kammak.If the singular form of the noun ends with -k, the preceding vowel will be elongated. Therefore:
savik → saviik.On occasion, the consonant preceding the final vowel is also geminated, though exact phonological reasoning is unclear.
Ergative case
The ergative case is often referred to as the Relative Case in Iñupiaq sources. This case marks the subject of a transitive sentence or a genitive noun phrase. For non-possessed noun phrases, the noun is marked only if it is a third person singular. The unmarked nouns leave ambiguity as to who/what is the subject and object. This can be resolved only through context. Possessed noun phrases and noun phrases expressing genitive are marked in ergative for all persons.This suffix applies to all singular unpossessed nouns in the ergative case.
| Example | English |
| aŋun → aŋutim | man → man |
| aŋatchiaq → aŋatchiaŋma | uncle → my two uncles |
Please note the underlying /tə/ form in the first example.
Instrumental case
This case is also referred to as the modalis case. This case has a wide range of uses described below:| Usage of instrumental | Iñupiaq | English | English |
| Marks nouns that are means by which the subject achieves something | Aŋuniaqtim aġviġluaq tuqutkaa nauligamik. | The hunter killed the gray whale with a harpoon. | |
| Marks the apparent patient of syntactically intransitive verbs | Miñułiqtugut umiamik. | We're painting a boat. | |
| Marks information new to the narrative Marks indefinite objects of some transitive verbs | Tuyuġaat tuyuutimik. | They sent him a letter. | |
| Marks the specification of a noun's meaning to incorporate the meaning of another noun | Niġiqaqtuguk tuttumik. | We have caribou for food. | |
| Marks the specification of a noun's meaning to incorporate the meaning of another noun | Qavsiñik paniqaqpit? | How many daughters do you have? |
Since the ending is the same for both dual and plural, different stems are used. In all the examples the k is assimilated to an ŋ.
Allative case
The allative case is also referred to as the terminalis case. The uses of this case are described below:| Usage of Allative | Iñupiaq | English | English |
| Used to signify motion or an action directed towards a goal | Qaliŋaum quppiġaaq atauksritchaa Nauyamun. | Qaliŋak lent a coat to Nauyaq | |
| Used to signify motion or an action directed towards a goal | Isiqtuq iglumun. | He went into the house | |
| Signifies that the statement is for the purpose of the marked noun | Niġiqpaŋmun niqłiuqġñiaqtugut. | We will prepare a meal for the feast. | |
| Signifies the beneficiary of the statement | Piquum uligruat paipiuranun qiḷaŋniqsuq. | Evidently Piquk knits blankets for babies. | |
| Marks the noun that is being addressed to | Qaliŋaŋmun uqautirut | They told Qaliŋak. |
*It is unclear as to whether this example is regular for the dual form or not.
Verbal morphology
Again, Malimiutun Iñupiaq is used as a representative example in this section. The basic structure of the verb is , although Lanz argues that this approach is insufficient since it "forces one to analyze... optional... suffixes". Every verb has an obligatory inflection for person, number, and mood, and can have other inflectional suffixes such as tense, aspect, modality, and various suffixes carrying adverbial functions.Tense
Tense marking is always optional. The only explicitly marked tense is the future tense. Past and present tense cannot be marked and are always implied. All verbs can be marked through adverbs to show relative time. If neither of these markings is present, the verb can imply a past, present, or future tense.| Tense | Iñupiaq | Transcription | English |
| Present | Uqaqsiitigun uqaqtuguk. | We talk on the phone. | |
| Future | Uqaqsiitigun uqaġisiruguk. | We will talk on the phone. | |
| Future | Iġñivaluktuq aakauraġa uvlaakun. | My sister give birth tomorrow. |
Aspect
Marking aspect is optional in Iñupiaq verbs. Both North Slope and Malimiut Iñupiaq have a perfective versus imperfective distinction in aspect, along with other distinctions such as: frequentative, habitual, inchoative, and intentional. The aspect suffix can be found after the verb root and before or within the obligatory person-number-mood suffix.Mood
Iñupiaq has the following moods: Indicative, Interrogative, Imperative, Coordinative, and Conditional. Participles are sometimes classified as a mood.Indicative mood endings can be transitive or intransitive, as seen in the table below.
Syntax
Nearly all syntactic operations in the Malimiut dialect of Iñiupiaq—and Inuit languages and dialects in general—are carried out via morphological means."The language aligns to an ergative-absolutive case system, which is mainly shown through nominal case markings and verb agreement.
The basic word order is subject-object-verb. However, word order is flexible and both subject and/or object can be omitted. There is a tendency for the subject of a transitive verb to precede the object of the clause. There is likewise a tendency for the subject of an intransitive verb to precede the verb. The subject of an intransitive verb and the object of a clause are usually found right before the verb. However, "this is merely a tendency."
Iñupiaq grammar also includes morphological passive, antipassive, causative and applicative.
Noun incorporation
is a common phenomenon in Malimiutun Iñupiaq. The first type of noun incorporation is lexical compounding. Within this subset of noun incorporation, the noun, which represents an instrument, location, or patient in relation to the verb, is attached to the front of the verb stem, creating a new intransitive verb. The second type is manipulation of case. It is argued whether this form of noun incorporation is present as noun incorporation in Iñupiaq, or "semantically transitive noun incorporation"—since with this kind of noun incorporation the verb remains transitive. The noun phrase subjects are incorporated not syntactically into the verb but rather as objects marked by the instrumental case. The third type of incorporation, manipulation of discourse structure, is supported by Mithun and argued against by Lanz. See Lanz's paper for further discussion. The final type of incorporation is classificatory noun incorporation, whereby a "general is incorporated into the , while a more specific narrows the scope". With this type of incorporation, the external noun can take on external modifiers and, like the other incorporations, the verb becomes intransitive. See Nominal Morphology on this page for an example.Switch-references
s occur in dependent clauses only with third person subjects. The verb must be marked as reflexive if the third person subject of the dependent clause matches the subject of the main clause. Compare:| Iñupiaq | English | English | Notes |
| Kaakkama niġiŋaruq. | When he/she got hungry, he/she ate. | The verb in the matrix clause refers to the same person because the verb in the dependent clause is reflexive. Therefore, a single person got hungry and ate. | |
| Kaaŋman niġiŋaruq. | When he/she got hungry, ate. | The verb in the matrix clause refers to a different singular person because the verb in the dependent clause is non-reflexive. |
Text sample
This is a sample of the Iñupiaq language of the Kivalina variety from Kivalina Reader, published in 1975.
Aaŋŋaayiña aniñiqsuq Qikiqtami. Aasii iñuguġuni. Tikiġaġmi Kivaliñiġmiḷu. Tuvaaqatiniguni Aivayuamik. Qulit atautchimik qitunġivḷutik. Itchaksrat iñuuvlutiŋ. Iḷaŋat Qitunġaisa taamna Qiñuġana.
This is the English translation, from the same source:
Aaŋŋaayiña was born in Shishmaref. He grew up in Point Hope and Kivalina. He marries Aivayuaq. They had eleven children. Six of them are alive. One of the children is Qiñuġana.
Vocabulary comparison
The comparison of various vocabulary in four different dialects:| North Slope Iñupiaq | Northwest Alaska Iñupiaq | King Island Iñupiaq | Qawiaraq dialect | English |
| atausiq | atausriq | atausiq | atauchiq | 1 |
| malġuk | malġuk | maġluuk | malġuk | 2 |
| piŋasut | piñasrut | piŋasut | piŋachut | 3 |
| sisamat | sisamat | sitamat | chitamat | 4 |
| tallimat | tallimat | tallimat | tallimat | 5 |
| itchaksrat | itchaksrat | aġvinikłit | alvinilġit | 6 |
| tallimat malġuk | tallimat malġuk | tallimat maġluuk | mulġunilġit | 7 |
| tallimat piŋasut | tallimat piñasrut | tallimat piŋasut | piŋachuŋilgit | 8 |
| quliŋuġutaiḷaq | quliŋŋuutaiḷaq | qulinŋutailat | quluŋŋuġutailat | 9 |
| qulit | qulit | qulit | qulit | 10 |
| qulit atausiq | qulit atausriq | qulit atausiq | qulit atauchiq | 11 |
| akimiaġutaiḷaq | akimiaŋŋutaiḷaq | agimiaġutailaq | . | 14 |
| akimiaq | akimiaq | agimiaq | . | 15 |
| iñuiññaŋŋutaiḷaq | iñuiñaġutaiḷaq | inuinaġutailat | . | 19 |
| iñuiññaq | iñuiñaq | inuinnaq | . | 20 |
| iñuiññaq qulit | iñuiñaq qulit | inuinaq qulit | . | 30 |
| malġukipiaq | malġukipiaq | maġluutiviaq | . | 40 |
| tallimakipiaq | tallimakipiaq | tallimativiaq | . | 100 |
| kavluutit | . | kabluutit | . | 1000 |
| nanuq | nanuq | taġukaq | nanuq | polar bear |
| ilisaurri | ilisautri | iskuuqti | ilichausrirri | teacher |
| miŋuaqtuġvik | aglagvik | iskuuġvik | naaqiwik | school |
| aġnaq | aġnaq | aġnaq | aŋnaq | woman |
| aŋun | aŋun | aŋun | aŋun | man |
| aġnaiyaaq | aġnauraq | niaqsaaġruk | niaqchiġruk | girl |
| aŋutaiyaaq | aŋugauraq | ilagaaġruk | ilagagruk | boy |
| Tanik | Naluaġmiu | Naluaġmiu | Naluaŋmiu | white person |
| ui | ui | ui | ui | husband |
| nuliaq | nuliaq | nuliaq | nuliaq | wife |
| panik | panik | panik | panik | daughter |
| iġñiq | iġñiq | qituġnaq | . | son |
| iglu | tupiq | ini | ini | house |
| tupiq | palapkaaq | palatkaaq | tupiq | tent |
| qimmiq | qipmiq | qimugin | qimmuqti | dog |
| qavvik | qapvik | qappik | qaffik | wolverine |
| tuttu | tuttu | tuttu | tuttupiaq | caribou |
| tuttuvak | tiniikaq | tuttuvak, muusaq | . | moose |
| tulugaq | tulugaq | tiŋmiaġruaq | anaqtuyuuq | raven |
| ukpik | ukpik | ukpik | ukpik | snowy owl |
| tatqiq | tatqiq | taqqiq | taqiq | moon/month |
| uvluġiaq | uvluġiaq | ubluġiaq | ubluġiaq | star |
| siqiñiq | siqiñiq | mazaq | matchaq | sun |
| niġġivik | tiivlu, niġġivik | tiivuq, niġġuik | niġġiwik | table |
| uqautitaun | uqaqsiun | qaniqsuun | qaniqchuun | telephone |
| mitchaaġvik | mirvik | mizrvik | mirrvik | airport |
| tiŋŋun | tiŋmisuun | silakuaqsuun | chilakuaqchuun | airplane |
| qai- | mauŋaq- | qai- | qai- | to come |
| pisuaq- | pisruk- | aġui- | aġui- | to walk |
| savak- | savak- | sawit- | chuli- | to work |
| nakuu- | nakuu- | naguu- | nakuu- | to be good |
| maŋaqtaaq | taaqtaaq | taaqtaaq | maŋaqtaaq, taaqtaaq | black |
| uvaŋa | uvaŋa | uaŋa | uwaŋa, waaŋa | I, me |
| ilviñ | ilvich | iblin | ilvit | you |
| kiña | kiña | kina | kina | who |
| sumi | nani, sumi | nani | chumi | where |
| qanuq | qanuq | qanuġuuq | . | how |
| qakugu | qakugu | qagun | . | when |
| ii | ii | ii'ii | ii, i'i | yes |
| naumi | naagga | naumi | naumi | no |
| paniqtaq | paniqtaq | paniqtuq | pipchiraq | dried fish or meat |
| saiyu | saigu | saayuq | chaiyu | tea |
| kuuppiaq | kuukpiaq | kuupiaq | kupiaq | coffee |
Print Resources: Existing Dictionaries, Grammar Books and Other
- Barnum, Francis. '. Hildesheim: G. Olms, 1970.
- Blatchford, DJ. Just Like That!: Legends and Such, English to Inupiaq Alphabet. Kasilof, AK: Just Like That!, 2003.
- Bodfish, Emma, and David Baumgartner. Iñupiat Grammar. Utqiaġvigmi: Utqiaġvium minuaqtuġviata Iñupiatun savagvianni, 1979.
- Kaplan, Lawrence D. Phonological Issues in North Alaskan Inupiaq. Alaska Native Language Center research papers, no. 6. Fairbanks, Alaska : Alaska Native Language Center, 1981.
- Kaplan, Lawrence. Iñupiaq Phrases and Conversations. Fairbanks, AK: Alaska Native Language Center, University of Alaska, 2000.
- MacLean, Edna Ahgeak. Iñupiallu Tanņiḷḷu Uqaluņisa Iḷaņich = Abridged Iñupiaq and English Dictionary. Fairbanks, Alaska: Alaska Native Language Center, University of Alaska, 1980.
- Lanz, Linda A. '. Houston, Texas: Rice University, 2010.
- MacLean, Edna Ahgeak. Beginning North Slope Iñupiaq Grammar. Fairbanks, Alaska: Alaska Native Language Center, University of Alaska, 1979.
- Seiler, Wolf A. Iñupiatun Eskimo Dictionary. Kotzebue, Alaska: NANA Regional Corporation, 2005.
- Seiler, Wolf. The Modalis Case in Iñupiat: . Giessener Beiträge zur Sprachwissenschaft, Bd. 14. Grossen-Linden: Hoffmann, 1978.
- Webster, Donald Humphry, and Wilfried Zibell. Iñupiat Eskimo Dictionary. 1970.