Mande languages


The Mande languages are spoken in several countries in West Africa by the Mandé peoples and include Maninka, Mandinka, Soninke, Bambara, Kpelle, Dioula, Bozo, Mende, Susu, and Vai. There are "60 to 75 languages spoken by 30 to 40 million people", chiefly in Burkina Faso, Mali, Senegal, the Gambia, Guinea, Guinea-Bissau, Sierra Leone, Liberia, and Ivory Coast. The Mande languages have traditionally been considered a divergent branch of the Niger–Congo family; however that categorisation has been controversial.

Homeland

concluded: "the Mande homeland at the second half of the 4th millennium BC was located in Southern Sahara, somewhere to the North of 16° or even 18° of Northern latitude and between 3° and 12° of Western longitude."

History

The group was first recognized in 1854 by Sigismund Wilhelm Koelle, in his Polyglotta Africana. He mentioned 13 languages under the heading North-Western High-Sudan Family, or Mandéga Family of Languages. In 1901, Maurice Delafosse made a distinction of two groups. He speaks of a northern group mandé-tan and a southern group mandé-fu. The distinction was basically done only because the languages in the north use the expression tan for ten, and the southern languages use fu. In 1924, Louis Tauxier noted that the distinction is not well founded and there is at least a third subgroup he called mandé-bu. It was not until 1950 that André Prost supported that view and gave further details.
In 1958, Welmers published an article The Mande Languages where he divided the languages into three subgroups: North-West, South and East. His conclusion was based on lexicostatistic research. Joseph Greenberg followed that distinction in his The Languages of Africa. Long and Gérard Galtier follow the distinction into three groups but with notable differences.
Various opinions exist as to the age of the Mande languages. Greenberg has suggested that the Niger-Congo group, which in his view includes the Mande languages, began to break up around 7000 years BP. Its speakers practised a Neolithic culture, as indicated by the Proto-Niger-Congo words for "cow", "goat" and "cultivate".
The Mande languages are considered to be an independent language family by Dimmendaal.

Classification

Mande does not share the morphology characteristic of most of the Niger–Congo family, such as the noun-class system. Blench regards it as an early branch that, like Ijoid and perhaps Dogon, diverged before it developed. Dwyer compared it with other branches of Niger–Congo and finds that they form a coherent family, with Mande being the most divergent of the branches he considered. However, Dimmendaal argues that the evidence for inclusion is slim, with no new evidence for decades, and for now Mande is best considered an independent family.
Most internal Mande classifications are based on lexicostatistics, and the results are unreliable. The following classification from Kastenholz is based on lexical innovations and comparative linguistics; details of East Mande are from Dwyer, summarized in Williamson & Blench 2000.
Paperno describes Beng and extinct Gbin as two primary branches of Southern Mande.

Languages in Nigeria

Mande languages spoken in Nigeria belong to the Busa subgroup. Below is a list of language names, populations, and locations from Blench.
LanguageAlternate spellingsOwn name for languageEndonymOther names Other names for languageExonymSpeakersLocation
Sorko Bozo SarkanciSarkawaMost Sorko now speak only Hausa. Mainly in MaliNiger, Kwara and Kebbi States; fishermen on Kainji Lake
BusaBoussaBìsã́sg. Busa, pl. BusanoBusagwe, Busanse, Boussanse, Busanci11,000 in Nigeria ; 50,000 in Nigeria, 50,000 in Benin Kwara State; Niger State, Borgu LGA; Kebbi State, Bagudo LGA; also in Benin Republic
KyengaKyangganyaKyanggani pl. KyangganaKenga, Tyengafive villages on Nigeria side which speak the language; 7,591 ; 10,000 including Shanga Niger State, Borgu LGA, north of Illo; also in Benin and Niger Republics
ShangaShonga10,000 including Kyenga : language dying outKebbi State, Bagudo and Yauri LGAs
BokoBooBoko120,000 all populations Niger State, Borgu LGA. Nikki–Kande area, Benin Republic.
Bokobarusg. Busa, pl. BusanoKaama, Zogbme, Zugweya, ZogbeyaKaiama30–40,000 Kwara State. Kaiama town and surrounding villages

Characteristics

Mande languages do not have the noun-class system or verbal extensions of the Atlantic–Congo languages and for which the Bantu languages are so famous, but Bobo has causative and intransitive forms of the verb. Southwestern Mande languages and Soninke have initial consonant mutation. Plurality is most often marked with a clitic; in some languages, with tone, as for example in Sembla. Pronouns often have alienable–inalienable and inclusive–exclusive distinctions. Word order in transitive clauses is subject–auxiliary–object–verb–adverb. Mainly postpositions are used. Within noun phrases, possessives come before the noun, and adjectives and plural markers after the verb; demonstratives are found with both orders.

Cognates

Here are some cognates from D. J. Dwyer :
GLOSSPROTO-
MANDÉ		MandingKono-VaiSusuMandé SoninkéSemblaBoboSanBusaManoDanGuroMwa
'mouth'*dadadadɛlalaqqejodoleleleDilele, di
'saliva'*da-yida-jida-sɛ-yela-yilaxan-jijon-fagodibesele-ile-yiDi-lileriliri
'water'*yijeyiyiyajijoji, ziomuniyiyiyiyi
'breast'*n-koŋsinsususisiŋenikonbekyeɲiŋiɲoɲoɲoŋɲoŋɲoŋɲoŋ
'milk'*n-kon-yinɔnɔsusu-jixin-yɛgen-iya-xattikye-n-dyon-yan-niŋin-yo-n-yoŋ-yin-yoŋ-yi
'goat'*bobabaɓolisugobigwabweblebɔbɔboribɔ
'buck'*bore-gurenba-korodiggehgu-gurable-sabɔ-gonbɔ-gongyagyabɔ-guren
'sheep'*sagasagabara-wayexeɓarajaxesegasɛgeseresabaablaberabla
'ram'*saga-gurensaga-korojaxampadekekyeresi-gulada-gubla-gonbra-gonbla-gure-
'head'*Koun-koloyin-kola-

Note that in these cognates: 'saliva' = 'mouth'+'water', 'milk' = 'breast'+'water', 'buck ' = 'goat'+'male', 'ram' = 'sheep'+'male'.

Numerals

Comparison of numerals in individual languages:
ClassificationLanguage12345678910
Bissadíípíjàkakʊ́sɪ̀sɔ́ɔ̀sòàtɪ sáápra síɲe ?nɛfʊ̀ ?bʊ̀
Busadoplaʔààɔ̃sííɔ̃sɔ́osoolo sopla swaàɔ̃ kɛ̃̀okwi kwi
Busadopláaʔààɡɔ̃sííɡɔ̃sɔ́ɔ́roswɛ́ɛ̀do swɛ́ɛ̀pláa sɔ́rààɡɔ̃ kɛ̃́ndo kurì
Busadopiaʔààkɔ̃ʃííkɔ̃sɔ́osóodo soopia swààkɔ̃ kĩ́ṇdokwi kwi
Busadoplaʔààkɔ̃sííkɔ̃sɔ́ɔ́rosúddo súppla sɔ́rààkɔ̃ kɛ̃́ndo kurì
Kyanga dúúfʸáāˀāàːʃíísɔ́ɔ́rūsɔ̄ɔ̄dū sʷāhʸáā sōōwà sòòʃí kōōrì
Kyanga dūːfʲâːʔàːʃíːsɔ̂ːwûsɔ̂ːdū sɔ̂ːfʲá sōːuwà sōwēʃíː kōːlì
Kyanga dohia / fiaʔàʃísɔɔlusɔɔdu sɔɔhia soowà sooʃí korì
Kyangadoʍaʔàʃísɔ́ɔsɔbodo sɔhia sɔboʔà sɔdoʃí wókòì
Samoɡɔ̀rɔ́prátjɔwɔsísɔ́rɔ́sɛ̀rɛ́ tjʊ́sʊ́ tjisí ménaŋɡɔrɔ flè / fʊ̀
Samodɛ́nɛ́fúrákàakúsíirísɔ́ɔrɔ́sɔ̀rɔ̀ sɔ̀frá cíɡísí ?sóosí ?bù
Guro-Turadʊfíéyaázĩ̀ɛ̃́sólúsʊɛdʊ / sʊɛlʊ sʊlàyíé sʊlaá sʊlàzĩ̀ɛ̃́ vu
Guro-Turatʊ̀fli̋yaaɡasĩjɛ̃ = sĩɟɛ̃ or sĩd͡ʒɛ̃sóoluʃɛ́dʊ sɔ́ravli sɔ́ra sɔ́rasiɛ̃ fù
Guro-Turadoópèèlɛyààkayììsɛsɔ́ɔ́lisáláádo sálápèèlɛ sálàka sɛ́lɛ̀ìsɛ vũ̀
Nwa-Bendoplaŋŋaŋsiéŋsɔ́ŋsɔ́do sɔ́pla sɔ́wa sisi ebu
Nwa-Bendòfɪ́nyíaziésúusɛ́dò sɛ́fɪ́n sɛà tízie vù
Nwa-Bendoplɛyaɡayiziɛsóósrɔádo srɔáplɛ srɔ́a srɔáyiziɛ vu
Nwa-Bendopilɔŋʔã́sijásɔ̀lúwáŋ́séaʔã́ séjãŋ́ sɔlásijá sɔ́jɔlú
Jogo-Jeridúlìfìlɑ̀siɡ͡bùnɑ̄ːnīsōːlōmìːlùmɑ̀ɑ́lɑ̀mɑ̀sīɡ͡bū mɑ́nɑ̄nì tɑ̄
Jogo-Jeridíén / díyéfàlà / fàlásèɡ͡bá / siɡ͡bánáánè / náanisóólò / sóolomɔ̀ɔ̀dó / mooró màúlà / mafála másèɡ͡bá / masiɡ͡bá màdááné / maráni táàn / táa
Mandingkyen / kyerenfila / filasaba / sabanɛi / naaniluu / luuruwɔɔ / wɔɔrɔwəna / wonlasii / siɡikonon / kondontan / tan
Mandingkélen fìla sàba náani dúuru wɔ́ɔrɔ wólonwula sèɡin kɔ̀nɔntɔn tán
Manding kelen filà ~ sàbà nàànìn dùùrù wɔ̀ɔ̀rɔ̀ wolon fìlà sieɡi kɔ̀nɔ̀ndon tan
Manding kelen fila / fla saba naani looru wɔɔrɔ wolonfila / wolonflaseɡin / seeɡi kɔnɔntɔn tan
Mandingkɛlɛnfilasawanaaniloolu / looliwɔɔrɔnwɔɔrɔn lasenkonondotan
Mandingkéléŋfyààsàwànáánílóówɔ́ɔ́lɔ́wóóŋvyààsɛ́ɲíŋkɔ̀ɔ̀nŋdɔ́ŋtáŋ
Mandingkíliŋfulasabanáanilúuluwóorowórówulasáyikonóntotáŋ
Mandingkilinfulasabanaaniluuluwoorowoorowulasaɡixonontotan
Mokolekélenfìlasàbanáanilɔ́ɔluwɔ́ɔrɔwɔ́rɔwila sáɡinkɔ̀nɔntɔtán
Mokolekelenfilasawa / sabananiloliwɔrɔwɔrɔnfila ?seɡinkɔnɔnttan
Mokolekelɛŋfelasawananiluuliwɔɔrɔwɔrɔŋ kela seŋkɔnɔndɔtaŋ
Vai-Kononcélen / ncéle, dɔ́ndofèasàwanáanidúʔuwɔ́ɔlɔwɔ́nfèa / ɔ́ɱfèaséi / séinkɔ̀nɔ́ntɔntán
Vai-Konolɔ̀ndɔ́fɛ̀ásàk͡pánáánìsóóúsɔ̂ŋ lɔ̀ndɔ́ sɔ̂ŋ fɛ̀á sɔ̂ŋ sàk͡pá sɔ̂ŋ náánì tâŋ
Susu-Yalunkakérén fìrín sàxán náánísúlísénní sólófèré sólómásàxán sólómánáání fuú
Susu-Yalunka kèdéfìríŋsàkáŋnànìsùlùsènì fòlófɛ̀rɛ́ fòlòmàsàkáŋ fòlòmànànì fù
Susu-Yalunka kedenfidinsaxannaanisuulisɛnni solofɛdɛ solomasɛɡɛ solomanaani fuu
Kpelletááŋhvèèlɛ̌ / hvèèlɛ́hààbǎ / hààbánááŋ́lɔ́ɔ́límɛ̀í dà mɛ̀ì hvéélɛ̀ mɛ̀ì háábà mɛ̀ì nááŋ́ pòǔ
Kpelletaaŋ / tɔnɔ / dɔnɔfeerɛsaaɓanáaŋnɔ́ɔlu / lɔ́ɔlumɛi da mɛi feerɛ mɛi saaɓa mɛi náaŋ puu
Mende-Loma ɡílàɡfélésáwànáánĩ̀dɔ́ɔ́lù̀dòzìtà dɔ́fèlà dɔ́sáwà tàwù̀ ?pù̀
Mende-Loma ɡilafeleɡɔsaaɡɔnaaɡɔdooluodɔzita dɔfela dɔsava taawu ?puu
Mende-Loma ìtá, hítàfèlésàwá, sàánáánìndɔ̀ɔ́lúnɡɔ̀hítá ŋɡɔ̀félà ŋɡɔ̀hák͡pá, ŋɡwahák͡pá tààwú, tààvú ?pû, púù
Mende-Loma iitáfeelésaawánaánindɔɔ́lunɡɔhíta nɡɔféla nɡwahák͡pa taávu ?púu
Mende-Loma ílafélé, féésáwá, cáwánááíńdɔuŋɡɔhita ŋɡɔfɛla ŋɡɔsaak͡pakaraabu, raabupuu, kapuu
Mende-Loma ilafeleitʃawanaiŋndɔunɡɔita nɡɔfla nɡɔsaɡ͡ba karabu ?kapu
Mende-Lomayilá / itááfelésawánáánilɔ́ɔ́luwɔ́íta wɔ́fíla wáyák͡pá táálú ?puú
Samogosɔʔifíʔiʒiʔinaainũtũmɛ̃ɲɛ̃ːnũŋaaikleːloceũ
Samogosōː ́ / sōːrēfíː / fíːkíʒìːɡī ́nàːlẽ́nũ̀tsũ̀mɛ̃̄ ́ɲɛ̃̀ːnṹŋáːlõ̀kjèːrṍtsjéù
Samogotẽẽnafuulibʒeipʃɪrɛᶦtããtãmãnɪ dʒɔ̃mpʊn fulpʊn tẽmpʊn bʒĩĩ
Samogoswɛ̃̄fĩ́ʃwɛ̀nàànɔ̄tsììɲɛ̀ɛ̀kààkùòmɛ̀tó
Soninke-Bobotálɪ̄pálàsǎnìã̄kʊ̄kʊ̀tã́nɪ̀ kʊ̀rʊ̀párá kʊ̀rʊ̀sɔ̄ʊ̀ kʊ̀rʊ̀nɔ̂ŋ m̥ḿ̩
Soninke-Bobotèléplásáànáàkóòkònálá kòk͡pùrá kórósɔ̃̌ kórónɔ̃̌ fʊ̃̀
Soninke-Bobosâ:nàfíenùsí:yùná:nàkɔ́lɔ́hɔ̀tú:mìdʒíenìsɛ́kìkáfìtã̄
Soninke-Bobosàn:ápẽ̀ːndésì:yénà:rákɔ̀lɔ́tù:mìdʒiènĩ́tʃèkíkìáwítá
Soninke-Bobo sánáfẽ́:ndèsí:yòkɔ́lɔ̀kɔ́lɔ̀tú:mĩ̀dʒê:nìsɛ̄kīkìáwìtã́
Soninke-Bobo sanna / kuɔnfendeen / pendeensiiyonnaarankɔlɔntuumijeenisekiinkiawitan
Soninke-Bobo sànːápẽ̀ndéːsíkɛ̃̀ũnàtã́kɔ̀ːɡṍtǔːmíyíènísèkːíkàpːítʃɛ́mí
Soninke-Bobo sannapendesikɛũ / siɡɛũnataũkɔɡõtuumiyeenisekikapitʃɛmi / tʃami
Soninke-Bobobàanèfíllò / filːisíkkò / sikːináɣátò / naɣatikáráɡò / karaɡitṹmù / tũmiɲérù / ɲeriséɡù / seɡikábù / kabitã́mú / tãmi