Old Swedish
Old Swedish is the name for two distinct stages of the Swedish language that were spoken in the Middle Ages: Early Old Swedish, spoken from about 1225 until about 1375, and Late Old Swedish, spoken from about 1375 until about 1526.
Old Swedish developed from Old East Norse, the eastern dialect of Old Norse. The earliest forms of the Swedish and Danish languages, spoken between the years 800 and 1100, were dialects of Old East Norse and are referred to as Runic Swedish and Runic Danish because at the time all texts were written in the runic alphabet. The differences were only minute, however, and the dialects truly began to diverge around the 12th century, becoming Old Swedish and Old Danish in the 13th century. It is not known when exactly Old Gutnish and Elfdalian began to diverge from Swedish, but Old Gutnish diverged long before Old Danish did.
Early Old Swedish was markedly different from modern Swedish in that it had a more complex case structure and had not yet experienced a reduction of the gender system and thus had three genders. Nouns, adjectives, pronouns and certain numerals were inflected in four cases: nominative, genitive, dative and accusative.
Development
Early Old Swedish
The writing of the Westrogothic law marked the beginning of Early Old Swedish, which had developed from Old East Norse. It was the first Swedish language document written in the Latin alphabet, and its oldest fragments have been dated to around the year 1225.Old Swedish was relatively stable during this period. The phonological and grammatical systems inherited from Old Norse were relatively well preserved and did not experience any major changes.
Most of the texts from the Early Old Swedish period were written in Latin, as it was the language of knowledge and the Church. However, Old Swedish was used as a literary language as well, and laws especially were written in it; of the 28 surviving manuscripts from this period, 24 contain law texts. Much of the knowledge of Old Swedish comes from these law texts. In addition to laws, some religious and poetic texts were also written in Old Swedish.
Loanwords
The Catholic Church and its various monastic orders introduced many new Greek and Latin loanwords into Old Swedish. Latin especially had an influence on the written language.The Middle Low German language also influenced Old Swedish due to the economic and political power of the Hanseatic League during the 13th and 14th centuries. Many German speakers immigrated to Swedish cities and worked in trade and administration. Accordingly, loanwords relating to warfare, trade, crafts and bureaucracy entered the Swedish language directly from Low German, along with some grammatical suffixes and conjunctions. The prefixes be-, ge- and för- that can be found in the beginning of modern Swedish words came from the Low German be-, ge- and vor-. Some words were replaced with new ones: the native word for window, vindøgha, was replaced with fönster, eldhus was replaced with kök and gælda with betala. Some of these words still exist in Modern Swedish but are often considered archaic or dialectal; one example is the word vindöga. Many words related to seafaring were borrowed from Dutch.
The influence of Low German was so strong that the inflectional system of Old Swedish was largely broken down.
Late Old Swedish
In contrast to the stable Early Old Swedish, Late Old Swedish experienced many changes, including a simplification of the grammatical system and a vowel shift, so that in the 16th century the language resembled modern Swedish more than before. The printing of the New Testament in Swedish in 1526 marked the starting point for modern Swedish.In this period Old Swedish had taken in a large amount of new vocabulary primarily from Latin, Low German and Dutch. When the country became part of the Kalmar Union in 1397, many Danish scribes brought Danicisms into the written language.
Orthography
Old Swedish used some letters that are no longer found in modern Swedish: and were used for modern and respectively, and could stand for both and . In the latter part of the 14th century was replaced with and.The grapheme could stand for both the phonemes and . The graphemes,, and were used interchangeably with the phonemes /w/ and , and could also sometimes stand for the consonant-vowel combinations and : dwa.
Certain abbreviations were used in writing, such as for meþ. The letter combinations, and were often written so that one of the letters stood above the other as a smaller letter, which led to the development of the modern letters,, and.
Phonology
The root syllable length in Old Swedish could be short, long or overlong. During the Late Old Swedish period the short root syllables were lengthened and the overlong root syllables were shortened, so modern Swedish only has the combinations and. Unlike in modern Swedish, a short vowel in Old Swedish did not entail a long consonant.There were eight vowels in Early Old Swedish:. A vowel shift occurred during the Late Old Swedish period, which had the following effects:
- became
- became
- became
The Modern Swedish tje-sound and sje-sound were probably and, respectively, similar to their values in modern Finland Swedish. A similar change can be seen from Old Spanish and to Modern Spanish and.
The proto-germanic phoneme was preserved in initial sounds in Old Swedish and did survive in rural Swedish dialects in the provinces of Skåne, Halland, Västergötland and south of Bohuslän into the 18th, 19th and 20th centrury. It is still preserved in the Dalecarlian dialects in the province of Dalarna, Sweden. The -phoneme did also occur after consonants in Old Swedish and did so into modern times in said dialects, as well as in the Westro- and North bothnian tongues in northern Sweden.
Grammar
Nominal morphology
Early Old Swedish
The most defining difference between Old Swedish and modern Swedish was the more complex grammatical system of the former. In Old Swedish nouns, adjectives, pronouns and certain numerals were inflected in four cases, whereas modern standard Swedish has reduced the case system to a common form and a genitive. There were also three grammatical genders, still retained in many dialects today, but now reduced to two in the standard language, where the masculine and feminine have merged. These features of Old Swedish are still found in modern Icelandic and Faroese; the noun declensions are almost identical.Noun declensions fell under two categories: weak and strong. The weak masculine, feminine and neuter nouns had their own declensions and at least three groups of strong masculine nouns, three groups of strong feminine nouns and one group of strong neuter nouns can be identified. Below is an overview of the noun declension system:
The noun declension system
- Vowel stems
- *a-stems
- **a-stems
- **ja-stems
- **ia-stems
- *ō-stems
- **ō-stems
- **jō-stems
- **iō-stems
- *i-stems
- *u-stems
- Consonant n-stems
- *n-stems
- **an-stems
- **ōn, ūn-stems
- **īn-stems
- Consonant stems
- * monosyllabic stems
- * r-stems
- * nd-stems
Masculine a-stems | Masculine u-stems | Feminine ō-stems | Neuter a-stems | Masculine an-stems | Feminine ōn-stems | |
Sg.Nom. | fisker | sun | siang | skip | biti | vika |
Sg.Acc. | fisk | sun | siang | skip | bita | viku |
Sg.Gen. | fisks | sunar | siangar | skips | bita | viku |
Sg.Dat. | fiski | syni | siangu | skipi | bita | viku |
Pl.Nom. | fiskar | synir | siangar | skip | bitar | vikur |
Pl.Acc. | fiska | syni | siangar | skip | bita | vikur |
Pl.Gen. | fiska | suna | sianga | skipa | bita | vikna |
Pl.Dat. | fiskum | sunum | siangum | skipum | bitum | vikum |
Late Old Swedish
By the year 1500 the number of cases in Old Swedish had been reduced from four to two. The dative case, however, lived on in a few dialects well into the 20th century.Other major changes include the loss of a separate inflectional system for masculine and feminine nouns, pronouns and adjectives in the course of the 15th century, leaving only two genders in the standard Swedish language, although three genders are still common in many of the dialects. The old dative forms of the personal pronouns became the object forms and -s became more common as the ending for the genitive singular.
Adjectives
Adjectives and certain numerals were inflected according to the gender and case the noun they modified was in. Below is a table of the inflection of weak adjectives.Verbs
Verbs in Old Swedish were conjugated according to person and number. There were four weak verb conjugations and six groups of strong verbs. The difference between weak and strong verbs is in the way the past tense is formed: strong verbs form it with a vowel shift in the root of the verb, while weak verbs form it with a dental suffix. During the Late Old Swedish period the verbal conjugation system was simplified, and verb agreement for person was lost.Strong verbs
The verbs in the table below are bīta, biūþa, værþa, stiæla, mæta and fara.Weak verbs
Weak verbs are grouped into four classes:- First conjugation: verbs ending in -a, -ā in the present tense. Most verbs belong to this class.
- Second conjugation: verbs ending in -e, -æ in the present tense.
- Third conjugation: verbs ending in -i, -ø in the present tense.
- Fourth conjugation: these verbs have a more or less irregular conjugation. About twenty verbs belong to this class.
- I: those ending in -þe in the preterite
- II: those ending in -de in the preterite
- III: those ending in -te in the preterite
Syntax
In nominal phrases the genitive attribute could stand both before and after the word it modified, i.e. one could say his house or house his. The same was true for pronouns and adjectives. During the Late Old Swedish period the usage of the genitive attribute became increasingly more restricted, and it nearly always came to be placed before the word it modified, so in modern Swedish one would usually only say hans hus, or in some dialects or manners of emphasis, huset hans, but almost never hus hans. Although, this too has lived on in some dialects, like in Västgötska, where the use of "mor din" has been common.
Personal pronouns
Below is a table of the Old Swedish personal pronouns:Numerals
The Old Swedish cardinal numbers are as follows. Numbers from one to four decline in the nominative, genitive, dative and accusative cases and in all three genders ; here the nominative forms are given. Numbers above four are indeclinable.The higher numbers are as follows. The numbers 21–29, 31–39, and so on are formed in the following way: ēn ok tiughu, ēn ok þrǣtighi, etc.
Examples
Västgötalagen
This is an extract from the Westrogothic law, which is the oldest continuous text written in the Swedish language, and was compiled during the early 13th century. The text marks the beginning of Old Swedish.Modern Swedish:
English:
The Life of Saint Eric
This text about Eric IX can be found in the Codex Bureanus, a collection of Old Swedish manuscripts from the mid-14th century.Translation: