V2 word order


In syntax, verb-second word order places the finite verb of a clause or sentence in second position with a single constituent preceding it, which functions as the clause topic.
V2 word order is common in the Germanic languages and is also found in Northeast Caucasian Ingush, Uto-Aztecan O'odham, and fragmentarily in Rhaeto-Romansh Sursilvan and Finno-Ugric Estonian
. Of the Germanic family, English is exceptional in having predominantly SVO order instead of V2, although there are vestiges of the V2 phenomenon.
Most Germanic languages do not normally use V2 order in embedded clauses, with a few exceptions. In particular, German, Dutch, and Afrikaans revert to VF word order after a complementizer; Yiddish and Icelandic do, however, allow V2 in all declarative clauses: main, embedded, and subordinate. Kashmiri has V2 in 'declarative content clauses' but VF order in relative clauses.

Examples

The following examples from German illustrate the V2 principle:
Sentences a–d have the finite verb spielten in the second position, with varying constituents occupying the first position. Sentences e and f are ungrammatical because the finite verb no longer appears in the second position. V2 word order allows any constituent to occupy the first position as long as the second position is occupied by the finite verb.

Non-finite verbs and embedded clauses

Non-finite verbs

The V2 principle regulates the position of finite verbs only; its influence on non-finite verbs is indirect. Non-finite verbs in V2 languages appear in varying positions depending on the language. In German and Dutch, for instance, non-finite verbs appear after the object in clause final position in main clauses. Swedish and Icelandic, in contrast, position non-finite verbs after the finite verb but before the object . That is, V2 operates on only the finite verb.

Embedded clauses

Germanic languages vary in the application of V2 order in embedded clauses. They fall into three groups.

Swedish, Danish, Norwegian, Faroese

In these languages, the word order of clauses is generally fixed in two patterns of conventionally numbered positions. Both end with positions for non-finite verb forms, objects, and, adverbials.
In main clauses, the V2 constraint holds. The finite verb must be in position and sentence adverbs in position. The latter include words with meanings such as 'not' and 'always'. The subject may be position, but when a topical expression occupies the position, the subject is in position.
In embedded clauses, the V2 constraint is absent. After the conjunction, the subject must immediately follow; it cannot be replaced by a topical expression. Thus, the first four positions are in the fixed order conjunction, subject, sentence adverb, finite verb
The position of the sentence adverbs is important to those theorists who see them as marking the start of a large constituent within the clause. Thus the finite verb is seen as inside that constituent in embedded clauses, but outside that constituent in V2 main clauses.
Swedish
Danish
So-called Perkerdansk is an example of a variety that does not follow the above.
Norwegian

Faroese

Unlike continental Scandinavian languages, the sentence adverb may either precede or follow the finite verb in embedded clauses. A slot is inserted here for the following sentence adverb alternative.

German

In main clauses, the V2 constraint holds. As with other Germanic languages, the finite verb must be in the second position. However, any non-finite forms must be in final position. The subject may be in the first position, but when a topical expression occupies the position, the subject follows the finite verb.
In embedded clauses, the V2 constraint does not hold. The finite verb form must be adjacent to any non-finite at the end of the clause.
German grammarians traditionally divide sentences into fields. Subordinate clauses preceding the main clause are said to be in the first field, clauses following the main clause in the final field.

The central field contains most or all of a clause, and is bounded by left bracket and right bracket positions.
In main clauses, the initial element is said to be located in the first field, the V2 finite verb form in the left bracket, and any non-finite verb forms in the right bracket.
In embedded clauses, the conjunction is said to be located in the left bracket, and the verb forms in the right bracket. In German embedded clauses, a finite verb form follows any non-finite forms.
German

Dutch and Afrikaans

V2 word order is used in main clauses, the finite verb must be in the second position. However, in subordinate clauses two word orders are possible for the verb clusters.
Main clauses:
Dutch
This analysis suggests a close parallel between the V2 finite form in main clauses and the conjunctions in embedded clauses. Each is seen as an introduction to its clause-type, a function which some modern scholars have equated with the notion of specifier. The analysis is supported in spoken Dutch by the placement of clitic pronoun subjects. Forms such as ie cannot stand alone, unlike the full-form equivalent hij. The words to which they may be attached are those same introduction words: the V2 form in a main clause, or the conjunction in an embedded clause.
Equivalent rules also exist in vernacular German, for example regarding the reduced pronunciation of '. Hence, this pronoun may be pronounced or following verbs and conjunctions, but not otherwise.
Subordinate clauses:'
In Dutch subordinate clauses two word orders are possible for the verb clusters and are referred to as the "red": omdat ik heb gewerkt, "because I have worked": like in English, where the auxiliary verb precedes the past particle, and the "green": omdat ik gewerkt heb, where the past particle precedes the auxiliary verb, "because I worked have": like in German. In Dutch, the green word order is the most used in speech, and the red is the most used in writing, particularly in journalistic texts, but the green is also used in writing as is the red in speech. Unlike in English however adjectives and adverbs must precede the verb: dat het boek groen is'', "that the book green is".

Icelandic and Yiddish

These languages freely allow V2 order in embedded clauses.
Icelandic

Two word-order patterns are largely similar to continental Scandinavian. However, in main clauses an extra slot is needed for when the front position is occupied by Það. In these clauses the subject follows any sentence adverbs. In embedded clauses, sentence adverbs follow the finite verb.
In more radical contrast with other Germanic languages, a third pattern exists for embedded clauses with the conjunction followed by the V2 order: front-finite verb-subject.
Yiddish

Unlike Standard German, Yiddish normally has verb forms before Objects, and in embedded clauses has conjunction followed by V2 order.

Root clauses

One type of embedded clause with V2 following the conjunction is found throughout the Germanic languages, although it is more common in some than it is others. These are termed root clauses. They are declarative content clauses, the direct objects of so-called bridge verbs, which are understood to quote a statement. For that reason, they exhibit the V2 word order of the equivalent direct quotation.
Danish

Items other than the subject are allowed to appear in front position.
Swedish

Items other than the subject are occasionally allowed to appear in front position. Generally, the statement must be one with which the speaker agrees.
This order is not possible with a statement with which the speaker does not agree.
Norwegian

German

Root clause V2 order is possible only when the conjunction dass is omitted.
Compare the normal embed-clause order after dass

English

Modern English differs greatly in word order from other modern Germanic languages, but earlier English shared many similarities. For this reason, some scholars propose a description of Old English with V2 constraint as the norm. The history of English syntax is thus seen as a process of losing the constraint.

Old English

In these examples, finite verb forms are in bold, non-finite verb forms are in italics and subjects are underlined.

Main clauses

Subject first
Question word first
Topic phrase first
þa first
Negative word first
Object first

Position of object

In examples b, c and d, the object of the clause precedes a non-finite verb form. Superficially, the structure is verb-subject-object- verb. To capture generalities, scholars of syntax and linguistic typology treat them as basically subject-object-verb structure, modified by the V2 constraint. Thus Old English is classified, to some extent, as an SOV language. However, example a represents a number of Old English clauses with object following a non-finite verb form, with the superficial structure verb-subject-verb object. A more substantial number of clauses contain a single finite verb form followed by an object, superficially verb-subject-object. Again, a generalisation is captured by describing these as subject–verb–object modified by V2. Thus Old English can be described as intermediate between SOV languages and SVO languages.

Effect of subject pronouns

When the subject of a clause was a personal pronoun, V2 did not always operate.
However, V2 verb-subject inversion occurred without exception after a question word or the negative ne, and with few exceptions after þa even with pronominal subjects.
Inversion of a subject pronoun also occurred regularly after a direct quotation.

Embedded clauses

Embedded clauses with pronoun subjects were not subject to V2. Even with noun subjects, V2 inversion did not occur.

Yes-No questions

In a similar clause pattern, the finite verb form of a yes-no question occupied the first position

Middle English

Continuity

generally preserved V2 structure in clauses with nominal subjects.
Topic phrase first
Nu first
As in Old English, V2 inversion did not apply to clauses with pronoun subjects.
Topic phrase first
Object first

Change

texts of the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries show increasing incidence of clauses without the inversion associated with V2.
Topic adverb first
Topic phrase first
Negative clauses were no longer formed with ne as the first element. Inversion in negative clauses was attributable to other causes.
Wh- question word first
There first
Object first

Vestiges in Modern English

As in earlier periods, Modern English normally has subject-verb order in declarative clauses and inverted verb-subject order in interrogative clauses. However these norms are observed irrespective of the number of clause elements preceding the verb.

Classes of verbs in Modern English: auxiliary and lexical

Inversion in Old English sentences with a combination of two verbs could be described in terms of their finite and non-finite forms. The word which participated in inversion was the finite verb; the verb which retained its position relative to the object was the non-finite verb. In most types of Modern English clause, there are two verb forms, but the verbs are considered to belong to different syntactic classes. The verbs which participated in inversion have evolved to form a class of auxiliary verbs which may mark tense, aspect and mood; the remaining majority of verbs with full semantic value are said to constitute the class of lexical verbs. The exceptional type of clause is that of declarative clause with a lexical verb in a present simple or past simple form.

Questions

Like Yes/No questions, interrogative Wh- questions are regularly formed with inversion of subject and auxiliary. Present Simple and Past Simple questions are formed with the auxiliary do, a process known as do-support.

With topic adverbs and adverbial phrases

In certain patterns similar to Old and Middle English, inversion is possible. However, this is a matter of stylistic choice, unlike the constraint on interrogative clauses.
negative or restrictive adverbial first
comparative adverb or adjective first
After the preceding classes of adverbial, only auxiliary verbs, not lexical verbs, participate in inversion
locative or temporal adverb first
prepositional phrase first
After the two latter types of adverbial, only one-word lexical verb forms, not auxiliary verbs, participate in inversion, and only with noun-phrase subjects, not pronominal subjects.

Direct quotations

When the object of a verb is a verbatim quotation, it may precede the verb, with a result similar to Old English V2. Such clauses are found in storytelling and in news reports.

Declarative clauses without inversion

Corresponding to the above examples, the following clauses show the normal Modern English subject-verb order.
Declarative equivalents
Equivalents without topic fronting

French

Modern French is a Subject-Verb-Object language like other Romance languages. However, V2 constructions existed in Old French and were more common than in other early Romance language texts. It has been suggested that this may be due to influence from the Germanic Frankish language. Modern French has vestiges of the V2 system similar to those found in modern English.
The following sentences have been identified as possible examples of V2 syntax in Old French:

Other languages

Kotgarhi and Kochi

In his 1976 three-volume study of two languages of Himachal Pradesh, Hendriksen reports on two intermediate cases: Kotgarhi and Kochi. Although neither language shows a regular V-2 pattern, they have evolved to the point that main and subordinate clauses differ in word order and auxiliaries may separate from other parts of the verb:
Hendriksen reports that relative clauses in Kochi show a greater tendency to have the finite verbal element in clause-final position than matrix clauses do.

Ingush

In Ingush, "for main clauses, other than episode-initial and other all-new ones, verb-second order is most common. The verb, or the finite part of a compound verb or analytic tense form, follows the first word or phrase in the clause."

O'odham

has relatively free word order within clauses; for example, all of the following sentences mean "the boy brands the pig":
Despite the general freedom of sentence word order, O'odham is fairly strictly verb-second in its placement of the auxiliary verb :
Among dialects of the Romansh, V2 word order is limited to Sursilvan, the insertion of entire phrases between auxiliary verbs and participles occurs, as in 'Cun Mariano Tschuor ha Augustin Beeli discurriu ', as compared to Engadinese 'Cun Rudolf Gasser ha discurrü Gion Peider Mischol'
The constituent that is bounded by the auxiliary, ha, and the participle, discurriu, is known as a Satzklammer or 'verbal bracket'.

Structural analysis in Dependency Grammar

can accommodate the V2 phenomenon simply by stipulating that one and only one constituent can be a predependent of the finite verb in declarative clauses. On this account, the V2 principle is violated if the finite verb has more than one predependent or no predependent at all. The following DG structures of the first four German sentences above illustrate the analysis :
The finite verb spielen is the root of all clause structure. The V2 principle requires that this root have a single predependent, which it does in each of the four sentences.
The four English sentences above involving the V2 phenomenon receive the following analyses:

Structural analysis in Generative Grammar

In the theory of Generative Grammar, the verb second phenomenon has been described as an application of X-bar theory. The combination of a first position for a phrase and a second position for a single verb has been identified as the combination of specifier and head of a phrase. The part after the finite verb is then the complement. While the sentence structure of English is usually analysed in terms of three levels, CP, IP, and VP, in German linguistics the consensus has emerged that there is no IP in German.
The VP structure assigns position and functions to the arguments of the verb. Hence, this structure is shaped by the grammatical properties of the V which heads the structure.
The CP structure incorporates the grammatical information which identifies the clause as declarative or interrogative, main or embedded. The structure is shaped by the abstract C which is considered the head of the structure. In embedded clauses the C position accommodates complementizers. In German declarative main clauses, C hosts the finite verb.
Thus the V2 structure is analysed as
In embedded clauses, the C position is occupied by a complementizer. In most Germanic languages, this generally prevents the finite verb from moving to C.
This analysis does not provide a structure for the instances in some language of root clauses after bridge verbs.
The solution is to allow verbs such as ved to accept a clause with a second CP.

Literature