West Atlantic languages
The West Atlantic languages of West Africa are a major subgroup of the Niger–Congo languages.
The Atlantic languages are spoken along the Atlantic coast from Senegal to Liberia, though transhumant Fula speakers have spread eastward and are found in large numbers across the Sahel, from Senegal to Nigeria, Cameroon and Sudan. Wolof of Senegal and several of the Fula languages are the most populous Atlantic languages, with several million speakers each. Other significant members include Serer and the Jola dialect cluster of Senegal. Temne, a major language of Sierra Leone, was included in the Atlantic subgroup in earlier classifications, but in modern proposals, it is no longer grouped within Atlantic.
Most Atlantic languages exhibit consonant mutation and have noun-class systems similar to those of the distantly related Bantu languages. Some languages are tonal, while others such as Wolof have pitch-accent systems. The basic word order tends to be SVO.
Classification and scope
Traditional classification
The Atlantic family was first identified by Sigismund Koelle in 1854. In the early 20th century, Carl Meinhof claimed that Fula was a Hamitic language, but August von Klingenhaben and Joseph Greenberg's work conclusively established Fula's close relationship with Wolof and Serer. W. A. A. Wilson notes that the validity of the family as a whole rests on much weaker evidence, though it is clear that the languages are part of the Niger–Congo family, based on evidence such as a shared noun-class system. However, comparative work on Niger–Congo is in its infancy. Classifications of Niger–Congo, usually based on lexicostatistics, generally propose that the various Atlantic languages are rather divergent, but less so than Mande and other languages that lack noun classes.David Sapir proposed a classification of Atlantic into three branches, a northern group, a southern group, and the divergent Bijago language of the Bissagos Islands off the coast of Guinea-Bissau:
- Northern
- *Sénégal languages: Fula–Serer; Wolof
- *Cangin languages
- *Bak languages
- *Eastern Sénégal–Portuguese Guinea languages
- **Tenda languages
- **Biafada–Pajade
- **Kobiana–Kasanga–Banhum
- **Nalu–Mbulungish–Baga Mboteni
- Bijago
- Southern
- *Sua
- *Mel languages
- *Limba
Modern proposals
The unity of the Atlantic languages—as traditionally defined—has long been questioned, e.g. Dalby, who argued for the Mel languages as a primary branch of Niger–Congo. At the current stage of research, the wide concept of Atlantic within the Niger–Congo family is no longer held up.Segerer and Pozdniakov & Segerer propose a narrowed-down version of the Atlantic languages by excluding all languages of the southern branch, which they treat as four primary branches within the Niger–Congo family. The Bak languages are split from the northern languages as a coordinate subbranch within Atlantic. Bijago is assigned to the Bak languages.
Güldemann goes even further, and also treats Nalu amd Mbulungish–Baga Mboteni as unclassified first-order branches of Niger–Congo.
Reconstruction
Proto-Atlantic lexical innovations reconstructed by Pozdniakov & Segerer :| Gloss | Proto-Atlantic |
| ‘star’ | *kʷʊʈ |
| ‘to fly’ | *yiiʈ |
| ‘to die’ | *keʈ |
| ‘to rot’ | *pʊʈ |
| ‘three’ | *taʈ |
| ‘eye’ | *giʈ |
| ‘liver’ | *heɲ |
| ‘feather’ | *lung |
| ‘hair’ | *wal |
| ‘baobab’ | *bak ~ *ɓak |
| ‘to see’ | *jok |
| ‘tree trunk’ | *dik |
| ‘to give birth’ | *was / *bas |
Sample Atlantic cognate sets:
| Language | ‘eye’ | ‘liver’ | ‘feather’ | ‘hair’ | ‘baobab’ | ‘to see’ | ‘tree trunk’ | ‘to give birth’ |
| Proto-Atlantic | *giʈ | *heɲ | *lung | *wal | *b/ɓak | *jok? | *dik | *w/bas |
| Tenda-Jaad | *gəɬ | *ceeɲ | *dɔ̰̀ngw | *mbal | ɓak | jeek? | *bas | |
| Fula-Sereer | *git | xeeɲ | wiil | ɓaak/ɓok | jak | lek- | ɓas-il | |
| Nyun-Buy | *giɬ | kɩɩɲ | lung | bɔk | njug? | leex/rien | bɔs | |
| Wolof | -ət | dung | *-war | jàkk | wəs-in | |||
| Cangin | *ʔəɬ | *kɛɛɲ | ɓaʔ/ɓɔh | *dik | ɓəs | |||
| Nalu | cet | bɛɛk | yɛk | dik/lik | ||||
| Joola | kiɬ | hɩɩɲ | *wal | bak | jʊk | nʊk-an | βɔs | |
| Manjak | *kiɬ | *-ɩɲ | lung | *wɛl | bak | jʊk | bas | |
| Balant | *kít/git | hɩ́ɩ́ɲɛ̰̀ | wul/hul | ndíŋá/ndiik | ||||
| Bijogo | ŋɛ | runk- | wa | joŋ | nik-an | -gbʸa |
Numerals
Comparison of numerals in individual languages:| Classification | Language | 1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | 5 | 6 | 7 | 8 | 9 | 10 |
| Senegambian, Serer | leŋ | ƭik | tadik | nahik | ƥetik | ɓetaa fo leŋ | ɓetaa ƭak | ɓetaa tadak | ɓetaa nahak | xarɓaxaay | |
| Senegambian, Serer | leŋ | ɗik | tadik | nahik | ɓedik | ɓetuː fa leŋ | ɓetuː ɗik | ɓetuː tadik | ɓetuː nahik | xarɓaxay | |
| Senegambian, Fula-Wolof | bɛn: | ɲaːr | ɲɛtː | ɲɛnt | dʒuroːm | dʒuroːm bɛn: | dʒuroːm ɲaːr | dʒuroːm ɲɛtː | dʒuroːm ɲɛnt | fukː | |
| Senegambian, Fula-Wolof | ɡɔ́ʔɔ̀ | ɗíɗi | tátì | náì | ɟóè | ɟóé ɡɔ̀l | ɟóé ɗìɗi | ɟóé tátì | ɟóé náì | sáppò | |
| Senegambian, Fula-Wolof | ɡoʔo | ɗiɗi | tati | naj | d͡ʒoj | d͡ʒeeɡom | d͡ʒeɗɗi | d͡ʒeetati | d͡ʒeenaj | sappo | |
| Senegambian, Fula-Wolof | ɡoʔo | ɗiɗi | tati | naj | d͡ʒowi | d͡ʒoweːɡo | d͡ʒoweːɗiɗi | d͡ʒoweːtati | d͡ʒoweːnaj | sappo | |
| Senegambian, Fula-Wolof | ɡoʔo | ɗiɗi | tati | naj | d͡ʒoj | d͡ʒeːɡom | d͡ʒeɗ:i | d͡ʒet:i | d͡ʒeːnaj | sap:o | |
| Senegambian, Fula-Wolof | ɡooto / ɡoo | ɗiɗi | tati | naj | d͡ʒowi | d͡ʒeeɡo | d͡ʒeeɗiɗi | d͡ʒeetati | d͡ʒeenaj | sappo | |
| Senegambian, Fula-Wolof | ɡoo | ɗiɗi | tati | naj | d͡ʒoj | d͡ʒeeɡom | d͡ʒeeɗiɗi | d͡ʒeetati | d͡ʒeenaj | sappo | |
| Eastern Senegal-Guinea, Banyun | -nduk | -na:k | -lal: | -rendek | cilax | cilax aŋɡa -nduk | cilax aŋɡa -na:k | cilax aŋɡa -lal: | cilax aŋɡa -rɛndɛk | ha:lax | |
| Eastern Senegal-Guinea, Banyun | uŋɡonduk | hanakk | halall | harɛnɛk | hɐməkila | hɐməkila iŋɡi uŋɡonduk | hɐməkila iŋɡi hanakk | hɐməkila iŋɡi halall | hɐməkila iŋɡi harɛnɛk | haala | |
| Eastern Senegal-Guinea, Banyun | -duk | -nak | -lall | -rɛnɛk | -məkila | -məkila iŋɡi -duk | -məkila iŋɡi -nak | -məkila iŋɡi -lall | -məkila iŋɡi -rɛnɛk | ha-lah | |
| Eastern Senegal-Guinea, Nun | -tɛɛna | -naandiid | -taar | -sannaʔ | jurooɡ | jurooɡ -tɛɛna | jurooɡ -naandiid | ɡasansanna | jurooɡ -sannaʔ | ŋaarooɡ | |
| Eastern Senegal-Guinea, Nun | -tee | -naŋ | -teeh | -sannaŋ | jurooɡ | jurooɡ -tee | jurooɡ -tee + ? | sannaŋ sannaŋ | sannaŋ sannaŋ + ? | ntaajã | |
| Eastern Senegal-Guinea, Tenda | painɛ / pakkã | maae | mat͡ʃaw | manne | kobəda | kobəda ŋka-inɛ | kobəda ŋka maae | kobəda ŋka mat͡ʃaw | kobəda ŋka manne | pappo | |
| Eastern Senegal-Guinea, Tenda | imɐt | ɓəki | ɓətɐs | ɓənɐx | ɓəɲɟɔ | ɓəɲɟɔŋɡimɐt | ɓəɲɟɔŋɡəɓəki | ɓəɲɟɔŋɡəɓətɐs | ɓəɲɟɔŋɡəɓənɐx | ɛpəxw | |
| Eastern Senegal-Guinea, Tenda | nəmma | bihe | biɟo | bini | ɡəbəda | mpaaɟi | mpaaɟi ŋɡa ɲi | wase | leberebo | bapo | |
| Eastern Senegal-Guinea, Tenda | -nnəmma | -ke | -jo | -nnihi | ɡəbəda | mpaaji | mpaaji nyi | wose | liberebo | ba-ppo | |
| Eastern Senegal-Guinea, Tenda | riye, diye, iye | xi, ki | sas, tas | maxala, maxana | co | co nɡə iye | co nɡə xi | co nɡə sas | co nɡə maxala | ipox | |
| Eastern Senegal-Guinea, Tenda | rjɐmpɔ | wɐhi | wɐrɐr | wɐr̃ɐh | mbəɗ | mbəɗ ɡə rjɐw̃ | mbəɗ ɡə wɐhi | mbəɗ ɡə wɐrɐr | mbəɗ ɡə wɐnɐh | pəhw | |
| Bijago | nɔɔd | n-som | ɲ-ɲɔɔkɔ | ya-aɡɛnɛk | n-deɔkɔ | na nɔɔd | ni n-som | ni ɲ-ɲɔɔkɔ | na ya-aɡɛnɛk | n-ruakɔ | |
| Bak, Balant-Ganja | -woda | -sibi | -aabí | -tahla | -jíif | faaj | faajinɡooda ? | taataala ? | -jíntahla ? | -jímmin | |
| Bak, Balant-Ganja | fho:dn / ho:dn | ksibm | khobm | ktahli | t͡ʃɪf | t͡ʃɪf kə fhdon | t͡ʃɪf kə ksibm | t͡ʃɪf kə khobm | t͡ʃɪf kə ktalhi | t͡ʃɪːfmɛn | |
| Bak, Jola, Bayot | ɛndon | tɪɡˑɡa | fɜzɪ | iβɛɪ | oɾɔ | oɾɔ-nenˑdon | oɾɔ-niɾɪɡˑɡa | oɾɔ-nifɛzɪ | oɾɔ-niβɛɪ | ɡʊtˑtɪɛ | |
| Bak, Jola, Bayot | ɛndon | ɪɾɪɡːə | i'feɟi | ɪ'βɛj | ɔɾɔ | ɔɾɔ nɪ 'ɛndon | ɔɾɔ nɪ 'ɪɾiɡːə | ɔɾɔ nɪ i'feɟi | ɔɾɔ nɪ ɪ'βɛj | ʊ'sɛβɔkɔ | |
| Bak, Jola, Jola Proper | jɐnʊɾ | suːβɐ | si'fʰəʝi | sɪ'bɐɣɪɾ | fʊ'tɔx | fʊ'tɔx nɪ 'jɐnʊɾ | fʊ'tɔx nɪ 'suːβɐ | fʊ'tɔx nɪ si'fʰəʝi | fʊ'tɔx nɪ sɪ'bɐɣɪɾ | ɣʊ'ɲɛn | |
| Bak, Jola, Jola Proper | janɷr ɷ = ʊ | suuβa | sifːəɟi | sɪbːaɣɪr | fɷtɔx | fɷtɔx nɪ janɷr | fɷtɔx nɪ suuβa | fɷtɔx nɪ sifːəɟi | fɷtɔx nɪ sɪbːaɣɪr | ɡɷɲɛn | |
| Bak, Jola, Jola Proper | jəkon | siɡaba | sifeeɡiir | sibaakiir | futɔk | futɔk di jəkon | futɔk di siɡaba | futɔk di sifeeɡiir | futɔk di sibaakiir | uɲɛn | |
| Bak, Jola, Jola Proper | jəkon | siɡaba | sifeeɡiir | sibaakiir | futɔk | futɔk di jəkon | futɔk di siɡaba | futɔk di sifeeɡiir | futɔk di sibaakiir | uɲɛn | |
| Bak, Jola, Jola Proper | jɐnɔ | sil̥uβə | si'həːɟi | sɪ'bɐkɪː | hʊ'tɔk | hʊ'tɔk lɪ 'jɐnɔ | hʊ'tɔk lɪ 'sil̥uβə | hʊ'tɔk lɪ si'həːɟi | hʊ'tɔk lɪ sɪ'bɐkɪː | kʊ'ŋɛn | |
| Bak, Jola, Jola Proper | yɔːnɔːl | susupək | sihəːciːl | sɪpɐːkɪːl | ɪsɐk | ɪsɐk nɪ yɔːnɔːl | ɪsɐk nɪŋ susupək | ɪsɐk nɪŋ sihəːciːl | ɪsɐk nɪŋ sɪpɐːkɪːl | ŋɐːsʊwɐn susupək | |
| Bak, Jola, Jola Proper | hifeeneŋ | kúsuba | kíhaaji | kibaakir | hutok | hutok ni hifeeneŋ | hutok nu kúsuba | hutok ni kíhaaji | hutok ni kibaakir | sumoŋu | |
| Bak, Manjaku-Papel | ulolɛ̂n | ŋɨ́tɛp | ŋɨ̀wàdʒɛ̀nt | ŋɨbakɨr | kaɲɛn | padʒɨ | nawuloŋ | bakɾɛ̂ŋ | kaɲɛ́ŋkalɔŋ | iɲɛ̂n | |
| Bak, Manjaku-Papel | o-loŋ | ŋ-puɡus | ŋ-ɟenʂ | ŋ-uakr | k-ɲene | paaɟ | ɟand | bakari | k-ɲeŋ k-loŋ | o-diseɲene | |
| Cangin | wi̘ːno̘ː | kɐnɐk | kɐːhɐj | niːkiːs | jə̘tu̘ːs | jitnɛːnɔː | jitnɐkɐnɐk | jitnɐkɐːhɐj | jitnɐniːkiːs | dɐːŋkɛh | |
| Cangin | yinë | ana | éeyë | iniil | iip | pëenë | paana | peeye | payniil | sabboo | |
| Cangin | ˈwiːnɔ: / ˈwitnɔː | ˈkanak | ˈkaːhaj | ˈnɪkɪːs | ˈjətu̘ːs | jɪtˈnɪːnɔː | jɪtnaˈkanak | jɪtnaˈkaːhaj | jɪtnaˈnɪkɪːs | ˈdaːŋkah | |
| Cangin | yino | ana | eye | iniil | iip | poyno | paana | peeye | payniil | saɓo | |
| Cangin | ˈjiːnɔ | ˈkanak̚ | ˈkaːhay | ˈniːkis | jaːtus | ˌjiːs na ˈjiːno | ˌjiːs na ˈkanak̚ | ˌjiːs na ˈkaːhay | ˌjiːs na ˈniːkis | ˈndaŋkiaːh | |
| Mbulungish-Nalu | kiben | ʃidi / tʃidi | ʃitɛt / tʃitɛt | ʃinɛŋ / tʃinɛŋ | susɑ | sɑkben | sɑkdi | sɑktɛt | sɑknɛŋ | ɛtɛlɛ | |
| Mbulungish-Nalu | deːndɪk | bilɛ | paːt | biːnaːŋ | teːduŋ | teːduŋ ti ndeːndɪk | teːduŋ ti bilɛ | teːduŋ ti paːt | teːduŋ ti biːnaːŋ | tɛːblɛ ~ tɛbɪlɛ | |
| Mbulungish-Nalu | deendek | bilɛ | paat | biinaaŋ | teedoŋ | teedoŋ ti mdeendek | teedoŋ ti bilɛ | teedoŋ ti paat | teedoŋ ti biinaaŋ | tɛɛblɛ | |
| Limba | hantʰe | kaaye | kataati | kanaŋ | kasɔhi | kasɔŋ hantʰe | kasɔŋ kaaye | kasɔŋ kataati | kasɔŋ kanaŋ | kɔɔhi | |
| Limba | hantʰe | kale | katati | kanaŋ | kasɔhi | kasɔŋ hantʰe | kasɔŋ kale | kasɔŋ katati | kasɔŋ kanaŋ | kɔhi | |
| Sua | sɔn | cen | b-rar | b-nan | sɔŋɡun | sɔŋɡun də sɔnsɔn | sɔŋɡun də mcen | sɔŋɡun də mbrar | sɔŋɡun də mnan | tɛŋi | |
| Mel, Bullom-Kissi | nìmbúl | nìncə́ŋ | nìnrá | nìŋnyɔ́l / -nyɔ́l | nìmán | mɛ̀m-búl | mɛ̀ncə́ŋ | mɛ̀nrá | mɛ̀nnyɔ́l | wàm | |
| Mel, Bullom-Kissi | bul | tɪŋ | ræ | hyo̠l o̠ = French au in ''aube' | mɛn | mɛn-buk | mɛn-tɪŋ | mɛn-ra | mɛn-hyo̠l | wāŋ | |
| Mel, Bullom-Kissi | pìlɛ̀ɛ́ | mùúŋ | ŋɡàá | hìɔ́ɔ́lú | ŋùɛ̀ɛ́nú | ŋǒmpûm | ŋǒmɛ́ú | ŋǒmáá | ŋǒmàhìɔ́ɔ́lú | tɔ́ | |
| Mel, Gola | ɡuùŋ | tìyèe | taai | tiinàŋ | nɔ̀ɔ̀nɔ̀ŋ | nɔ̀ɔ̀nɔ̀ŋ diè ɡuùŋ | nɔ̀ɔ̀nɔ̀ŋ leè tìyèe | nɔ̀ɔ̀nɔ̀ŋ leè taai | nɔ̀ɔ̀nɔ̀ŋ leè tiinàŋ | zììyà | |
| Mel, Temne, Baga | piin | marəm | masaas | maaŋkəlɛɛŋ | kəcaamət | kəcaamtr tiin | kəcaamtr marəm | kəcaamtr masaas | kəcaamtr maaŋkəlɛɛŋ | ocoo | |
| Mel, Temne, Baga | pin | mɛrɨŋ | maːs / mãs | maŋkɨlɛ | kɨt͡ʃamɨt | t͡ʃamɨtin | t͡ʃamɨmɛrɨŋ | t͡ʃamɨmaːs | t͡ʃamɨmaŋkɨlɛ | wɨt͡ʃɔ | |
| Mel, Temne, Baga | tɛ̀n | mʌ̀rəŋ | mʌ̀sas | mànkᵊlɛ | kəcàmət | kəcʌ̀ntin | kəcʌ̀ntᵊ mʌ̀rəŋ | kəcʌ̀ntᵊ̀ mʌ̀sas | kəcʌ̀ntᵊ mànkᵊlɛ | pù | |
| Mel, Temne, Temne-Banta | pín | pɨrʌ́ŋ | pɨsas | panlɛ | tamát̪ | dukín | dɛrɨ́ŋ | dɛsas | dɛŋanlɛ | tɔfɔ́t | |
| Mel, Temne, Temne-Banta | pìn | pə̀rə́ŋ | pə̀sàs | pànlɛ̀ | tàmàθ | dùkìn | dɛ̀rə̀ŋ | dɛ̀sàs | dɛ̀ŋànlɛ̀ | tɔ̀fɔ̀t | |
| Mel, Temne, Temne-Banta | p-in | pə-rəŋ | pə-sas | p-aŋlɛ | tamath | tamath rukin | tamath dɛrəŋ | tamath rɛsasa | tamath rɛŋaŋlɛ | tɔfʌt |