Austronesian personal pronouns
This article describes the personal pronoun systems of various Austronesian languages.
Proto-languages">Proto-Austronesian language">Proto-languages
The Proto-Austronesian and Proto-Malayo-Polynesian personal pronouns below were reconstructed by Robert Blust.| Type of Pronoun | English | Proto-Austronesian | Proto-Malayo-Polynesian |
| 1s. | "I" | *i-aku | *i-aku |
| 2s. | "you" | *i-Su | *i-kahu |
| 3s. | "he/she/it" | *si-ia | *si-ia |
| 1p. | "we " | *i-ita | *i-ita |
| 1p. | "we " | *i-ami | *i-ami |
| 2p. | "you all" | *i-kamu | *i-kamu, ihu |
| 3p. | "they" | *si-ida | *si-ida |
In 2006, Malcolm Ross also proposed seven different pronominal categories for persons. The categories are listed below, with the Proto-Austronesian first person singular given as examples.
- Neutral
- Nominative 1
- Nominative 2
- Accusative
- Genitive 1
- Genitive 2
- Genitive 3
| Free | Free polite | Genitive 1 | Genitive 2 | Genitive 3 | |
| 1s. | *aku | - | *=ku | *maku | *n-aku |
| 2s. | *Su | *ka-Su | *=Su | *miSu | *ni-Su |
| 3s. | *s-ia | - | - | *n-ia | |
| 1p. | *i-ami | *k-ami | *=mi | *mami | *n-ami |
| 1p. | *ita | *k-ita | *=ta | *mita | *n-ita |
| 2p. | *i-amu | *k-amu | *=mu | *mamu | *n-amu |
| 3p. | *si-da | - | - | *ni-da |
[Formosan languages]
Rukai
Below are Rukai pronouns from Zeitoun. Paul Jen-kuei Li's classification of Rukai dialects is given for reference.- Rukai
- *Mantauran – 250-300 speakers
- *
- **Maga-Tona
- ***Maga
- ***Tona
- **Budai-Tanan
- ***Budai
- ***Tanan
| Type of Pronoun | Topic | Nominative | Oblique | Genitive |
| 1s. | iɭaə | -ɭao, nao- | -i-a-ə | -li |
| 2s. | imiaʔə | -moʔo | i-miaʔ-ə | -ʔo |
| 3s. | ana | - | -i-n-ə | -i |
| 3s. | ðona | - | -i-ð-ə | -ða |
| 1p. | imitə, ita | -mita, -ta | -i-mit-ə | -ta |
| 1p. | inamə | -nai | -i-nam-ə | -nai |
| 2p. | inomə | -nomi | -i-nom-ə | -nomi |
| 3p. | ana-lo | - | -i-l-i-n-ə | -l-i-ni |
| 3p. | ðona-lo | - | -i-l-i-ð-ə | -l-i-ða |
| Type of Pronoun | Topic | Nominative | Oblique | Genitive |
| 1s. | kunaku | -aku, naw- | nakuanə | -li |
| 2s. | kusu | -su | musuanə | -su |
| 3s. | kuini | - | inianə | -ini |
| 3s. | kuiɖa | - | - | - |
| 1p. | kuta | -ta | mitaanə | -ta |
| 1p. | kunai | -nai | naianə | -nai |
| 2p. | kunumi | -numi, -nu | numianə | -numi |
| 3p. | kuini | - | inianə | -ini |
| 3p. | kuiɖa | - | - | - |
| Type of Pronoun | Topic | Nominative | Oblique | Genitive |
| 1s. | i kɨkɨ | ku-, kɨkɨ | ŋkua | -li |
| 2s. | i musu | su-, musu | sua | -su |
| 3s. | i kini | kini | nia | -ini |
| 3s. | i kiɖi | kiɖi | ɖia | -ɖa |
| 1p. | i miti | ta-, miti | mitia | -ta |
| 1p. | i knamɨ | namɨ-, knamɨ | nmaa | -namɨ |
| 2p. | i mumu | mu-, mumu | mua | -mu |
| 3p. | i kini | kini | nia | -ini |
| 3p. | i kiɖi | kiɖi | ɖia | -ɖa |
Tsouic
The personal pronouns below are from the Tfuya dialect of Tsou, and are sourced from Zeitoun. Note that third-person pronouns are distinguished between those that are visible or non-visible.| Type of Pronoun | Free | Bound | Bound |
| 1s. | a'o | -'o/-'u | -'o/-'u |
| 2s. | suu | -su/-ko | -su/-ko |
| 3s. | taini | -ta | -taini |
| 3s. | ic'o | - | -si |
| 1p. | a'ati | -to | -to |
| 1p. | a'ami | -mza | -mza |
| 2p. | muu | -mu | -mu |
| 3p. | hin'i | -hin'i | -hin'i |
| 3p. | hee | - | -he |
Northwestern Formosan
Pazeh
The Pazeh personal pronouns below are from Li.| Type of Pronoun | Neutral | Nominative | Genitive | Locative |
| 1s. | yaku | aku | naki | yakuan, yakunan |
| 2s. | isiw | siw | nisiw | isiwan |
| 2s. | imini | mini | nimini | iminiyan |
| 3s. | imisiw | misiw | nimisiw | misiwan |
| 3s. | isia | sia | nisia | isiaan |
| 1p. | ita | ta | nita | itaan |
| 1p. | yami | ami | nyam | yamian, yaminan |
| 2p. | imu | mu | nimu | imuan |
| 2p. | yamini | amini | naamini | yaminiyan |
| 3p. | yamisiw | amisiw | naamisiw | yamisiwan |
| 3p. | yasia | Asia | naasia | yasiaan |
Saisiyat
Saisiyat has an elaborate pronominal system.| Type of Pronoun | Nominative | Accusative | Genitive | Dative | Possessive | Locative |
| 1s. | yako, yao | yakin, iyakin | ma'an | 'iniman | 'amana'a | kanman |
| 2s. | So'o | 'iso'on | niSo | 'iniSo | 'anso'o'a | kanSo |
| 3s. | sia | hisia | nisia | inisia | 'ansiaa | kansia |
| 1p. | 'ita | 'inimita | mita' | 'inimita' | 'anmita'a | kan'ita |
| 1p. | yami | 'iniya'om | niya'om | 'iniya'om | 'anya'oma | kanyami |
| 2p. | moyo | 'inimon | nimon | 'inimon | 'anmoyoa | kanmoyo |
| 3p. | lasia | hilasia | nasia | 'inilasia | 'anlasiaa | kanlasia |
Thao
The Thao personal pronouns below are from Blust. Note that there is only 1 form each for "we," "you " and "they."| Type of Pronoun | Nominative | Accusative | Genitive |
| 1s. | yaku | yakin | nak |
| 2s. | ihu | ihu-n | m-ihu |
| 3s. | cicu | cicu-n | cicu |
| 1p. | ita | ita-n | m-ita |
| 1p. | yamin | yamin | yamin |
| 2p. | maniun | maniun | maniun |
| 3p. | caycuy | caycuy | caycuy |
Favorlang
The following Favorlang personal pronouns are from Li. All of them are free forms. All genitive pronouns end with -a.| Type of Pronoun | Neutral | Genitive | Nominative/Accusative |
| 1s. | ka-ina | na-a | ina |
| 2s. | ijonoë | joa, oa | ijo |
| 3s. | icho | choa | icho |
| 1p. | torro | torroa | - |
| 1p. | namono | namoa | namo |
| 2p. | imonoë | imoa | imo |
| 3p. | aicho-es dechonoë | choa | decho |
Atayalic
The Wulai and Mayrinax Atayal personal pronouns below are sourced from Huang. In both varieties, the nominative and genitive forms are bound while the neutral and locative ones are free.Wulai Atayal
Mayrinax Atayal
Teruku Seediq
East Formosan
Siraya
The Siraya personal pronouns below are from Adelaar.| Type of Pronoun | Free | Actor or Possessive | Topic | Oblique |
| 1s. | ĭau | -au | -koh | ĭau-an |
| 2s. | ĭmhu | -uhu, -oho | -kow | ĭmhu-an |
| 3s. | teni | tĭn | teni | tĭni-än |
| 1p. | ĭmĭtta | -ĭtta, -eta | -kĭtta | ĭmittä-n |
| 1p. | ĭmi-an | -ian, -iän | -kame | mian-än |
| 2p. | ĭmumi | -umi | kamu | ĭmumi-än |
| 3p. | ta neini | nein | neini | neini-än |
Taivoan
The Taivoan personal pronouns:| Type of Pronoun | Independent | Nominative | Genitive | Oblique |
| 1s. | iau | kuri | ku | iyaw-an |
| 2s. | imho | ko | ho | imho-an |
| 3s. | teni | ta teni | tin | tini-an |
| 1p. | imita | kita | ita | imita-n |
| 1p. | imian | kame | ian | imian-an |
| 2p. | imomi | kamo | omi | imomi-an |
| 3p. | naini | ta naini | nin | naini-an |
Kavalan
The Kavalan personal pronouns below are from Li.| Type of Pronoun | Nominative | Genitive | Oblique | Locative |
| 1s. | aiku, =iku | zaku, -ku | timaiku | tamaikuan |
| 2s. | aisu, =isu | zasu, -su | timaisu | tamaisuan |
| 3s. | aizipna tiyau | zana, -na | timaizipna tiyau | tamaizipan tiyauan |
| 1p. | aita, =ita | zata, -ta, -kita | timaita | tamaitan |
| 1p. | aimi, =imi | zanyaq, -nyaq | timaimi | tamaimian |
| 2p. | aimu, =imu | zanumi, -numi | timaimu | tamaimuan |
| 3p. | qaniyau | zana, -na | qaniyau | taqaniyauan |
Basay
The Basay personal pronouns below are from Li.| Type of Pronoun | Neutral | Nominative | Genitive | Oblique |
| 1s. | yaku | kaku, -ku | maku-, -aku; naku, -ak | yakuan, kuan, kuanan |
| 2s. | isu | kisu, -su | misu, -isu; nisu, -su ~ -is | isuan, suan, isuanan, suanan |
| 3s. | - | -ia | - | - |
| 1p. | mita | kita, -ita | mita, -ita; nita, -ta | ...,..., tianan |
| 1p. | yami | -mi | yami, -ami; nami, -am | yamian, mian, mianan |
| 2p. | imu | kimu, -mu | -imu; nimu, -im | imuan,..., imuanan |
| 3p. | - | -ia | - | - |
Bunun
Takivatan Bunun personal pronoun roots are :- 1s: -ak-
- 2s: -su-
- 3s: -is-
- 1p : -at-
- 1p : -ðam-
- 2p: -mu-
- 3p: -in-
| Type of Pronoun | Root | Foc. Agent | Non-Foc. Agent | Neutral | Foc. Agent | Locative | Possessive |
| 1s. | -ak- | -ak | -uk | ðaku, nak | sak, saikin | ðakuʔan | inak, ainak, nak |
| 2s. | -su- | -as | - | suʔu, su | - | suʔuʔan | isu, su |
| 1p. | -at- | - | - | mita | ʔata, inʔata | mitaʔan | imita |
| 1p. | -ðam- | -am | - | ðami, nam | ðamu, sam | ðamiʔan | inam, nam |
| 2p. | -mu- | -am | - | muʔu, mu | amu | muʔuʔan | imu, mu |
| Singular | Plural | |
| -is- | -in- | |
| Proximal | isti | inti |
| Medial | istun | intun |
| Distal | ista | inta |
Iskubun Bunun personal pronouns are somewhat different.
| Type of Pronoun | Agent | Undergoer | Possessive |
| 1s. | saikin, -ik | ðaku, -ku | inak, nak |
| 2s. | kasu, -as | su | isu, su |
| 3s. | saia | saiʤa | isaiʤa, saiʤa |
| 1p. | kata, -ta | mita | imita |
| 1p. | kaimin, -im | ðami | inam |
| 2p. | kamu, -am | mu | imu |
| 3p. | naia | inaiʤa | naiʤa |
Paiwan
The Kuɬaɬau Paiwan personal pronouns below are from Ferrell.| Type of Pronoun | Equational | Genitive | Non-Eq., Non-Gen. |
| 1s. | -aken, ti-aken | ku-, ni-aken | tjanu-aken |
| 2s. | -sun, ti-sun | su-, ni-sun | tjanu-sun |
| 3s. | ti-madju | ni-madju | tjai-madju |
| 1p. | -itjen, ti-tjen | tja-, ni-tjen | tjanu-itjen |
| 1p. | -amen, ti-amen | nia-, ni-amen | tjanu-amen |
| 2p. | -mun, t-mun | nu-, ni-mun | tjanu-mun |
| 3p. | ti-a-madju | ni-a-madju | tjai-a-madju |
Puyuma
The Nanwang Puyuma personal pronouns below are from Teng.| Type of Pronoun | Nominative | Oblique: Direct | Oblique: Indirect | Oblique: Non-Subject | Neutral |
| 1s. | nanku | kanku, kananku | draku, drananku | kanku | kuiku |
| 2s. | nanu | kanu, kananu | dranu, drananu | kanu | yuyu |
| 3s. | nantu | kantu, kanantu | dratu, dranantu | kantaw | taytaw |
| 1p. | nanta | kanta, kananta | drata, drananta | kanta | taita |
| 1p. | naniam | kaniam, kananiam | draniam, drananiam | kaniam | mimi |
| 2p. | nanemu | kanemu, kananemu | dranemu, drananemu | kanemu | muimu |
| 3p. | nantu | kantu, kanantu | dratu, dranantu | kantaw | - |
| Type of Pronoun | Nominative | Nominative | Genitive |
| 1s. | =ku | ku= | ku= |
| 2s. | =yu | nu= | nu= |
| 3s. | - | tu= | tu= |
| 1p. | =ta | ta= | ta= |
| 1p. | =mi | niam= | mi= |
| 2p. | =mu | mu= | mu= |
| 3p. | - | tu= | tu= |
Malayo-Polynesian languages
[Philippine languages]
Ilokano">Ilokano language">Ilokano
personal pronouns distinguish three cases: absolutive, ergative, and oblique. They also distinguish three numbers: singular, dual and plural.Accent marks in the following table are not written, but given here for pronunciation purposes.
Tagalog">Tagalog language">Tagalog
Like nouns, Tagalog personal pronouns are categorized by case. As above, the indirect forms also function as the genitive.| Direct | Indirect | Oblique | |
| 1st person singular | akó | ko | akin |
| 1st person dual | kitá/kata | nitá/nata | kanitá/kanata |
| 1st person plural inclusive | tayo | natin | atin |
| 1st person plural exclusive | kamí | namin | amin |
| 2nd person singular | ikáw | mo | iyó |
| 2nd person plural | kayó | ninyó | inyó |
| 3rd person singular | siyá | niyá | kaniyá |
| 3rd person plural | silá | nilá | kanilá |
Cebuano">Cebuano language">Cebuano
Like nouns, Cebuano personal pronouns are categorized by case.| Kinsa | Tag-iya | Tag-iya | Oblique | |
| 1st person singular | ako | akoa | nako | kanako |
| 2nd person singular | ikaw | imoha | nimo | kanimo |
| 3rd person singular | siya / sya | iyaha /iya | niya | kaniya |
| 1st person plural inclusive | kita | atoa / ato | nato | kanato |
| 1st person plural exclusive | kami | amoa / amo | namo | kanamo |
| 2nd person plural | kamo | inyoha | ninyo | kaninyo |
| 3rd person plural | sila | ilaha | nila | kanila |
When the pronoun is not the first word of the sentence, the short form is more commonly used than the full form.
| Kinsa | Tag-iya | Tag-iya | Oblique | |
| 1st person singular | ko | ako | ko | nako |
| 2nd person singular | ka | imo | mo | nimo |
| 3rd person singular | siya | iya | niya | niya |
| 1st person plural inclusive | ta | ato | ta | nato |
| 1st person plural exclusive | mi | amo | namo | namo |
| 2nd person plural | mo | inyo | ninyo | ninyo |
| 3rd person plural | sila | ila | nila | nila |
Malay">Malay language">Malay
The informal pronouns aku, kamu, engkau, ia, kami, and kita are indigenous to Malay.| Person | Malay | English |
| First person | saya, aku | I, me |
| First person | kami | we, us: they and me, s/he and me |
| First person | kita | we, us: you and me, you and us |
| Second person | anda, engkau, kamu | you, thou, thee |
| Second person | anda sekalian, kalian | you, y'all |
| Third person | ia ~ dia, dia orang | he, she, him, her |
| Third person | ia ~ dia, mereka, dia orang | they, them |
;Possessive pronouns
Aku, kamu, engkau, and ia have short possessive enclitic forms. All others retain their full forms like other nouns, as does emphatic dia: meja saya, meja kita, meja anda, meja dia "my table, our table, your table, his/her table".
| Pronoun | Enclitic | Possessed form |
| aku | -ku | mejaku |
| kamu | -mu | mejamu |
| engkau | -kau | mejakau |
| ia | -nya | mejanya |
Javanese">Javanese language">Javanese
Javanese lacks some personal pronouns. For the first person plural, Javanese use awaké dhèwè, literally meaning "the body itself" or just dhèwè, that originally means "itself" or "alone". For the third person singular, Javanese uses dhèwèké that means "itself", from dhèwè + -k- + -é, or wongé' that means "the person", from wong + -é.The rest of plural pronouns uses words kabèh/sedaya/sedanten, all of them meaning "all" after the singular form.
;Possessive pronouns
Aku, kowé, and dhèwèké have short possessive enclitic forms. All others retain their full forms like other nouns: griyané kula, omahé awaké dhèwè, dalemipun panjenengan "my house, our house, your house ".
| Pronoun | Enclitic | Possessed form |
| aku | -ku/-é kula/-ipun dalem | omahku/griyané kula/dalemipun dalem |
| kowe | -mu/-é sampeyan/-ipun panjenengan | omahmu/griyané sampeyan/dalemipun panjenengan |
| dhèwèké | -é/-ipun | omahé/griyané/dalemipun |
[Polynesian languages]
Tongan
The Tongan cardinal pronouns are the main personal pronouns which in Tongan can either be preposed or postposed. The first are the normal pronouns, the latter the stressed pronouns, which are also used as reflexive pronouns.Samoan
Like many Austronesian languages, Samoan has separate words for inclusive and exclusive we, and distinguishes singular, dual, and plural. The root for the inclusive pronoun may occur in the singular, in which case it indicates emotional involvement on the part of the speaker.| singular | dual | plural | |
| First person exclusive | a‘u, ‘ou | mā‘ua, mā | mātou |
| First person inclusive | tā | tā‘ua, tā | tātou |
| Second person | ‘oe, ‘e | ‘oulua | ‘outou, tou |
| Third person | ia / na | lā‘ua | lātou |
In formal speech, fuller forms of the roots mā-, tā-, and lā- are ‘imā-, ‘itā-, and ‘ilā-.