Austronesian languages


The Austronesian languages are a language family, widely spoken throughout the Malay Peninsula, Maritime Southeast Asia, Madagascar, the islands of the Pacific Ocean and Taiwan. There are also a few speakers in continental Asia. They are spoken by about 386 million people. This makes it the fifth-largest language family by number of speakers. Major Austronesian languages include Malay, Javanese, and Tagalog. According to some estimates, the family contains 1,257 languages, which is the second most of any language family.
In 1706, the Dutch scholar Adriaan Reland first observed similarities between the languages spoken in the Malay Archipelago and by peoples on islands in the Pacific Ocean. In the 19th century, researchers.
The family is aptly named, because most Austronesian languages are spoken by island dwellers. Only a few languages, such as Malay and the Chamic languages, are indigenous to mainland Asia. Many Austronesian languages have very few speakers, but the major Austronesian languages are spoken by tens of millions of people. For example, Malay is spoken by 250 million people. This makes it the eighth most-spoken language in the world. Approximately twenty Austronesian languages are official in their respective countries.
By the number of languages they include, Austronesian and Niger–Congo are the two largest language families in the world. They each contain roughly one-fifth of the world's languages. The geographical span of Austronesian was the largest of any language family before the spread of Indo-European in the colonial period. It ranged from Madagascar off the southeastern coast of Africa to Easter Island in the eastern Pacific. Hawaiian, Rapa Nui, Māori, and Malagasy are the geographic outliers.
According to Robert Blust, Austronesian is divided into several primary branches, all but one of which are found exclusively in Taiwan. The Formosan languages of Taiwan are grouped into as many as nine first-order subgroups of Austronesian. All Austronesian languages spoken outside Taiwan belong to the Malayo-Polynesian branch. These are sometimes called Extra-Formosan.
Most Austronesian languages lack a long history of written attestation. This makes reconstructing earlier stages—up to distant Proto-Austronesian—all the more remarkable. The oldest inscription in the Cham language, the Đông Yên Châu inscription dated to the mid-6th century AD at the latest, is the first attestation of any Austronesian language.

Typological characteristics

Phonology

The Austronesian languages overall possess phoneme inventories which are smaller than the world average. Around 90% of the Austronesian languages have inventories of 19-25 sounds, thus lying at the lower end of the global typical range of 20-37 sounds. However, extreme inventories are also found, such as Nemi with 43 consonants, or Northwest Mekeo with only 7 consonants.
The canonical root type in Proto-Austronesian is disyllabic with the shape CVCVC, and is still found in many Austronesian languages. In most languages, consonant clusters are only allowed in medial position, and often, there are restrictions for the first element of the cluster. There is a common drift to reduce the number of consonants which can appear in final position, e.g. Buginese, which only allows the two consonants /ŋ/ and /ʔ/ as finals, out of a total number of 18 consonants. Complete absence of final consonants is observed e.g. in Nias, Malagasy and many Oceanic languages.
Unlike in the languages of Mainland Southeast Asia, tonal contrasts are extremely rare in Austronesian languages. Exceptional cases of tonal languages are Moklen and a few languages of the Chamic, South Halmahera–West New Guinea and New Caledonian subgroups.

Morphology

Most Austronesian languages are agglutinative languages with a relatively high number of affixes, and clear morpheme boundaries. Most affixes are prefixes, with a smaller number of suffixes and infixes ' < tavete 'work.
Reduplication is commonly employed in Austronesian languages. This includes full reduplication or partial reduplication.

Syntax

It is difficult to make generalizations about the languages that make up a family as diverse as Austronesian. Very broadly, one can divide the Austronesian languages into three groups: Philippine-type languages, Indonesian-type languages and post-Indonesian type languages:
The Austronesian language family has been established by the linguistic comparative method on the basis of cognate sets, sets of words similar in sound and meaning which can be shown to be descended from the same ancestral word in Proto-Austronesian according to regular rules. Some cognate sets are very stable. The word for eye in many Austronesian languages is mata. Other words are harder to reconstruct. The word for two is also stable, in that it appears over the entire range of the Austronesian family, but the forms require some linguistic expertise to recognise. The Austronesian Basic Vocabulary Database gives word lists for approximately 1000 Austronesian languages.

Classification

The internal structure of the Austronesian languages is complex. The family consists of many similar and closely related languages with large numbers of dialect continua, making it difficult to recognize boundaries between branches. The first major step towards high-order subgrouping was Dempwolff's recognition of the Oceanic subgroup. The special position of the languages of Taiwan was first recognized by André-Georges Haudricourt, who divided the Austronesian languages into three subgroups: Northern Austronesian, Eastern Austronesian, and Western Austronesian.
In a study that represents the first lexicostatistical classification of the Austronesian languages, Isidore Dyen presented a radically different subgrouping scheme. He posited 40 first-order subgroups, with the highest degree of diversity found in the area of Melanesia. The Oceanic languages are not recognized, but are distributed over more than 30 of his proposed first-order subgroups. Dyen's classification was widely criticized and for the most part rejected, but several of his lower-order subgroups are still accepted.
Subsequently, the position of the Formosan languages as the most archaic group of Austronesian languages was recognized by Otto Christian Dahl, followed by proposals from other scholars that the Formosan languages actually make up more than one first-order subgroup of Austronesian. Robert Blust first presented the subgrouping model which is currently accepted by virtually all scholars in the field, with more than one first-order subgroup on Taiwan, and a single first-order branch encompassing all Austronesian languages spoken outside of Taiwan, viz. Malayo-Polynesian.

Malayo-Polynesian

The Malayo-Polynesian languages are—among other things—characterized by certain sound changes, such as the mergers of Proto-Austronesian *t/*C to Proto-Malayo-Polynesian *t, and PAN *n/*N to PMP *n, and the shift of PMP *S to PAN *h.
There appear to have been two great migrations of Austronesian languages that quickly covered large areas, resulting in multiple local groups with little large-scale structure. The first was Malayo-Polynesian, distributed across the Philippines, Indonesia, and Melanesia. The second migration was that of the Oceanic languages into Polynesia and Micronesia.

Primary branches on Taiwan (Formosan languages)

In addition to Malayo-Polynesian, thirteen Formosan subgroups are broadly accepted. The seminal article in the classification of Formosan—and, by extension, the top-level structure of Austronesian—is. Prominent Formosanists take issue with some of its details, but it remains the point of reference for current linguistic analyses. Debate centers primarily around the relationships between these families. Of the classifications presented here, links two families into a Western Plains group, two more in a Northwestern Formosan group, and three into an Eastern Formosan group, while also links five families into a Northern Formosan group. splits Tsouic, and notes that Tsou, Rukai, and Puyuma fall outside of reconstructions of Proto-Austronesian.
Other studies have presented phonological evidence for a reduced Paiwanic family of Paiwanic, Puyuma, Bunun, Amis, and Malayo-Polynesian, but this is not reflected in vocabulary. The Eastern Formosan peoples Basay, Kavalan, and Amis share a homeland motif that has them coming originally from an island called Sinasay or Sanasay. The Amis, in particular, maintain that they came from the east, and were treated by the Puyuma, amongst whom they settled, as a subservient group.

Blust (1999)

This classification retains Blust's East Formosan, and unites the other northern languages. proposes a Proto-Formosan ancestor and equates it with Proto-Austronesian, following the model in Starosta. Rukai and Tsouic are seen as highly divergent, although the position of Rukai is highly controversial.
In 2009, Malcolm Ross proposed a new classification of the Formosan language family based on morphological evidence from various Formosan languages. He proposed that the current reconstructions for Proto-Austronesian actually correspond to an intermediate stage, which he terms "Proto-Nuclear Austronesian". Notably, Ross' classification does not support the unity of the Tsouic languages, instead considering the Southern Tsouic languages of Kanakanavu and Saaroa to be a separate branch. This supports Chang's claim that Tsouic is not a valid group.

History

From the standpoint of historical linguistics, the place of origin of the Austronesian languages is most likely the main island of Taiwan, also known as Formosa; on this island the deepest divisions in Austronesian are found, among the families of the native Formosan languages.
According to Robert Blust, the Formosan languages form nine of the ten primary branches of the Austronesian language family. noted this when he wrote:
... the internal diversity among the... Formosan languages... is greater than that in all the rest of Austronesian put together, so there is a major genetic split within Austronesian between Formosan and the rest... Indeed, the genetic diversity within Formosan is so great that it may well consist of several primary branches of the overall Austronesian family.
At least since, linguists have generally accepted that the chronology of the dispersal of languages within a given language family can be traced from the area of greatest linguistic variety to that of the least. For example, English in North America has large numbers of speakers, but relatively low dialectal diversity, while English in Great Britain has much higher diversity; such low linguistic variety by Sapir's thesis suggests a more recent origin of English in North America. While some scholars suspect that the number of principal branches among the Formosan languages may be somewhat less than Blust's estimate of nine, there is little contention among linguists with this analysis and the resulting view of the origin and direction of the migration. For a recent dissenting analysis, see.
The protohistory of the Austronesian people can be traced farther back through time. To get an idea of the original homeland of the populations ancestral to the Austronesian peoples, evidence from archaeology and population genetics may be adduced. Studies from the science of genetics have produced conflicting outcomes. Some researchers find evidence for a proto-Austronesian homeland on the Asian mainland, while others mirror the linguistic research, rejecting an East Asian origin in favor of Taiwan. Archaeological evidence is more consistent, suggesting that the ancestors of the Austronesians spread from the South Chinese mainland to Taiwan at some time around 8,000 years ago. Evidence from historical linguistics suggests that it is from this island that seafaring peoples migrated, perhaps in distinct waves separated by millennia, to the entire region encompassed by the Austronesian languages. It is believed that this migration began around 6,000 years ago. However, evidence from historical linguistics cannot bridge the gap between those two periods. The view that linguistic evidence connects Austronesian languages to the Sino-Tibetan ones, as proposed for example by, is a minority one. As states:
Implied in... discussions of subgrouping is a broad consensus that the homeland of the Austronesians was in Taiwan. This homeland area may have also included the P'eng-hu islands between Taiwan and China and possibly even sites on the coast of mainland China, especially if one were to view the early Austronesians as a population of related dialect communities living in scattered coastal settlements.
Linguistic analysis of the Proto-Austronesian language stops at the western shores of Taiwan; any related mainland language have not survived. The only exceptions, the Chamic languages, derive from more recent migration to the mainland.

Hypothesized relations

Genealogical links have been proposed between Austronesian and various families of East and Southeast Asia.

Austric

A link with the Austroasiatic languages in an 'Austric' phylum is based mostly on typological evidence. However, there is also morphological evidence of a connection between the conservative Nicobarese languages and Austronesian languages of the Philippines.

Austro-Tai

A competing Austro-Tai proposal linking Austronesian and Kra-Dai was first proposed by Paul K. Benedict, and is supported by Weera Ostapirat, Roger Blench, and Laurent Sagart, based on the traditional comparative method. proposes a series of regular correspondences linking the two families and assumes a primary split, with Kra-Dai speakers being the people who stayed behind in their Chinese homeland. suggests that, if the connection is valid, the relationship is unlikely to be one of two sister families. Rather, he suggests that proto-Kra-Dai speakers were Austronesians who migrated to Hainan Island and back to the mainland from the northern Philippines, and that their distinctiveness results from radical restructuring following contact with Hmong–Mien and Sinitic. An extended version of Austro-Tai was hypothesized by Benedict who added the Japonic languages to the proposal as well.

Sino-Austronesian

French linguist and Sinologist Laurent Sagart considers the Austronesian languages to be related to the Sino-Tibetan languages, and also groups the Kra–Dai languages as more closely related to the Malayo-Polynesian languages. He also groups the Austronesian languages in a recursive-like fashion, placing Kra-Dai as a sister branch of Malayo-Polynesian. His methodology has been found to be spurious by his peers.

Japanese

Several linguists have proposed that Japanese is genetically related to the Austronesian family, cf. Benedict, Matsumoto, Miller.
Some other linguists think it is more plausible that Japanese is not genetically related to the Austronesian languages, but instead was influenced by an Austronesian substratum or adstratum. Those who propose this scenario suggest that the Austronesian family once covered the islands to the north as well as to the south. Martine Robbeets claims that Japanese genetically belongs to the "Transeurasian" languages, but underwent lexical influence from "para-Austronesian", a presumed sister language of Proto-Austronesian. The linguist Ann Kumar proposed that some Austronesians migrated to Japan, possibly an elite-group from Java, and created the Japanese-hierarchical society and identifies 82 plausible cognates between Austronesian and Japanese.

Ongan

proposed that the Austronesian and the Ongan protolanguage are the descendants of an Austronesian–Ongan protolanguage. But this view is not supported by mainstream linguists and remains very controversial. Robert Blust rejects Blevins' proposal as far-fetched and based solely on chance resemblances and methodologically flawed comparisons.

Writing systems

Most Austronesian languages have Latin-based writing systems today. Some non-Latin-based writing systems are listed below.
Below are two charts comparing list of numbers of 1-10 and thirteen words in Austronesian languages; spoken in Taiwan, the Philippines, the Mariana Islands, Indonesia, Malaysia, Chams or Champa, East Timor, Papua, New Zealand, Hawaii, Madagascar, Borneo and Tuvalu.

Englishonetwothreefourpersonhousedogroaddaynewwewhatfire
Proto-Austronesian*əsa, *isa*duSa*təlu*əpat*Cau*balay, *Rumaq*asu*zalan*qaləjaw, *waRi*baqəRu*kita, *kami*anu, *apa*Sapuy
Tetumidaruatoluhaatemaumaasudalanloronfounitasaidaahi
Amiscecaytosatolosepattamdawlumawaculalancidalfarohkitaumannamal
Puyumasaduatelupattawrumahsoandalanwarivekarmiamanaiapue,
asi
Tagalogisadalawatatloapattaobahayasodaanarawbagotayo / kamianoapoy
Bikolsarôduwátulóapattáwoharongáyamdálanaldawbâgokitáanókalayó
Rinconada Bikoləsaddarwātolōəpattawōbaləyayamraranaldəwbāgokitāonōkalayō
Warayusaduhatuloupattawobalayayam,
ido		dalanadlawbag-okitaanukalayo
Cebuanousa,
isa		duhatuloupattawobalayirodalanadlawbag-okitaunsakalayo
Hiligaynonisaduhatatloapattawobalayidodalanadlawbag-okitaanokalayo
Aklanonisaea,
sambilog		daywatatloap-attawobaeayayamdaeanadlawbag-okitaanokaeayo
Kinaray-asaradarwatatloapattawobalayayamdalanadlawbag-okitaanokalayo
Tausughambuukduwatuupattaubayiru'danadlawba-gukitaniyuunukayu
Maranaoisadowat'lophattawwalayasolalangawi'ebagotanotonaaapoy
Kapampanganmétungadwáatlúápattáubaléásudálanaldóbáyuíkatamunánuapî
Pangasinansakeydua,
duara		talo,
talora		apat,
apatira		tooabongasodalanageobalosikatayoantopool
Ilokanomaysaduatallouppattaobalayasodalanaldawbarodatayoaniaapoy
Ivatanasadadowatatdoapattaovahaychitorarahanarawva-yoyatenangoapoy
Ibanagtaddayduatalluappa'tolaybalaykitudalanaggawbagusittamanniafi
Yogadtataaddutalluappattolaybinalayatudaddamanagawbagusikitamganiafuy
Gaddangantetaddwatalloappattolaybalayatudallanawbawuikkanetamsanenayafuy
Tbolisotulewutlufattaugunuohulankdawlomitekuyteduofih
Lun Bawang/ Lundayehecehduehteluhepatlemulun/lunruma'uko'dalanecoberuhteuenunapui
Malay
sa/se,
satu,
suatu		duatigaempatorangrumah,
balai		anjingjalanharibarukitaapa,
anu		api
Old Javaneseesa,
eka		rwa,
dwi		tĕlu,
tri		pat,
catur		wwangumahasudalandinahañar, añarkamiapa,
aparan		apuy,
agni
Javanesesiji,
setunggal		loro,
kalih		tĕlu,
tiga		papat,
sekawan		uwong,
tiyang,
priyantun		omah,
griya,
dalem		asu,
sĕgawon		dalan,
gili		dina,
dinten		anyar,
énggal		awaké dhéwé,
kula panjenengan		apa,
punapa		gĕni,
latu,
brama
Sundanesehijiduatiluopaturangimahanjingjalanpoeanyar,
enggal		arurangnaonseuneu
Acehnesesaduwalhèëpeuëtureuëngrumoh,
balè,
seuëng		asèëröturoëbarôtanyoëpeuëapui
Minangkabauciekduotigoampekurangrumahanjianglabuah,
jalan		haribaruawakapoapi
Rejangdoduaitlaupattunumêakkuyukdalênbilaiblauitêjano,
gen,
inê		opoi
Lampungesesaikhuatelupakjelemalambankaciranlayakhanibarukhamapiapui
Buginesese'diduatellueppa'taubolaasulalengessobaruidi'agaapi
Temuansatukduaktigakempatuwang,
eang		gumah,
umah		anying,
koyok		jalanaik,
haik		bahaukkitakapakapik
Toba Bataksadaduatoluopathalakjabubiangdalanaribaruhitaahaapi
Kelantan-Pattanisoduwotigopakogheghumoh,
dumoh		anjingjaleaghibaghukitogapoapi
Chamorrohåcha,
maisa		huguatulufatfattaotao/tautauguma'ga'låguchålanha'åninuebuhitahåfaguåfi
Motuta,
tamona		ruatoihanitaurumasisiadaladinamatamataita,
ai		dahakalahi
Māoritahiruatoruwhātangatawharekurīararāhoutāua, tātou/tātau
māua, mātou/mātau		ahaahi
Tuvaluantasiluatolufátokofalekuliala,
tuu		asofoutāuaaafi
Hawaiiankahiluakoluhākanakahale'īlioalaaohoukākouahaahi
Banjareseasaduwataluampaturangrūmahhadupanhekohǎrihanyarkamiapaapi
Malagasyisaroateloefatraolonatranoalikalalanaandrovaovaoisikainonaafo
Dusunisoduotoluapattulunwalai,
lamin		tasuralantadauwagutokouonu/nutapui
Kadazanisoduvotohuapattuhunhamintasulahantadauvagutokouonu,
nunu		tapui
Rungusisoduvotolu,
tolzu		apattulun,
tulzun		valai,
valzai		tasudalantadauvagutokoununutapui,
apui
Sungai/Tambanuoidoduotoluopatlobuwwaloiasuralanrunatwagutokoonuapui
Ibansatu, sa,
siti, sigi		duatigaempatorang,
urang		rumahukui,
uduk		jalaiharibarukitainamaapi
Sarawak Malaysatu,
sigek		duatigaempatorangrumahasukjalanaribarukitaapaapi
Terengganuanseduwetigepakoghangghumoh,
dumoh		anjingjalangaghibaghukitemende, ape,
gape, nape		api
Kanayatnsaduataluampaturakngrumahasu'jalatnaribarukami',
diri'		aheapi