Book of Deuteronomy
The Book of Deuteronomy is the fifth book of the Jewish Torah, where it is called Devarim, "the words ".
Chapters 1–30 of the book consist of three sermons or speeches delivered to the Israelites by Moses on the plains of Moab, shortly before they enter the Promised Land. The first sermon recounts the forty years of wilderness wanderings which had led to that moment, and ends with an exhortation to observe the law, later referred to as the Law of Moses. The second sermon reminds the Israelites of the need to follow Yahweh and the laws he has given them, on which their possession of the land depends. And the third sermon offers the comfort that, even should Israel prove unfaithful and so lose the land, with repentance all can be restored.
The final four chapters contain the Song of Moses, the Blessing of Moses, and the narratives recounting the passing of the mantle of leadership from Moses to Joshua and, finally, the death of Moses on Mount Nebo.
Virtually all secular scholars reject its attribution to Moses and date the book much later, between the 7th and 5th centuries BCE. Chapters 12–26, containing the Deuteronomic Code, are the earliest section, followed by the second prologue, and then the first prologue ; the chapters following 26 are similarly layered. Most scholars believe that the Deuteronomic Code was composed during the late monarchic period, around the time of King Josiah, although some scholars have argued for a later date, either during the Babylonian captivity or during the Persian period. Many scholars see the book as reflecting the economic needs and social status of the Levite caste, who are believed to have provided its authors; those likely authors are collectively referred to as the Deuteronomist.
One of its most significant verses is, the Shema Yisrael, which has become the definitive statement of Jewish identity: "Hear, O Israel: the Tetragrammaton| our God, the is one." Verses 6:4–5 were also quoted by Jesus in as part of the Great Commandment.
Structure
Patrick D. Miller in his commentary on Deuteronomy suggests that different views of the structure of the book will lead to different views on what it is about. The structure is often described as a series of three speeches or sermons followed by a number of short appendices – Miller refers to this as the "literary" structure; alternatively, it is sometimes seen as a ring-structure with a central core and an inner and an outer frame – Miller calls this the covenantal substructure; and finally the theological structure revealed in the theme of the exclusive worship of Yahweh established in the first of the Ten Commandments and the Shema.Summary
- Chapters 1–4: The journey through the wilderness from Horeb to Kadesh and then to Moab is recalled.
- Chapters 4–11: After a second introduction at 4:44–49 the events at Mount Horeb are recalled, with the giving of the Ten Commandments. Heads of families are urged to instruct those under their care in the law, warnings are made against serving gods other than Yahweh, the land promised to Israel is praised, and the people are urged to obedience.
- Chapters 12–26, the Deuteronomic code: Laws governing Israel's worship, the appointment and regulation of community and religious leaders, social regulation, and confession of identity and loyalty.
- Chapters 27–28: Blessings and curses for those who keep and break the law.
- Chapters 29–30: Concluding discourse on the covenant in the land of Moab, including all the laws in the Deuteronomic code after those given at Horeb; Israel is again exhorted to obedience.
- Chapters 31–34: Joshua is installed as Moses's successor, Moses delivers the law to the Levites, and ascends Mount Nebo or Pisgah, where he dies and is buried by God. The narrative of these events is interrupted by two poems, the Song of Moses and the Blessing of Moses.
Deuteronomic code
, the Deuteronomic Code, is the oldest part of the book and the core around which the rest developed. It is a series of mitzvot to the Israelites regarding how they ought to conduct themselves in Canaan, the land promised by Yahweh, God of Israel. The following list organizes most of the laws into thematic groups:Laws of religious observance
- All sacrifices are to be brought and vows are to be made at a central sanctuary.
- The worship of Canaanite gods is forbidden. The order is given to destroy their places of worship and to commit genocide against Canaanites and others with "detestable" religious beliefs.
- Native mourning practices such as deliberate disfigurement are forbidden.
- The procedure for tithing produce or donating its equivalent is given.
- A catalogue of which animals are permitted and which forbidden for consumption is given.
- The consumption of animals which are found dead and have not been slaughtered is prohibited.
- Sacrificed animals must be without blemish.
- First-born male livestock must be sacrificed.
- The Pilgrimage Festivals of Passover, Shavuot, and Sukkot are instituted.
- The worship at Asherah groves and setting up of ritual pillars are forbidden.
- Prohibition of mixing kinds.
- Tzitzit are obligatory.
Laws concerning officials
- Judges are to be appointed in every city.
- Judges are to be impartial and bribery is forbidden.
- A central tribunal is established.
- Should the Israelites choose to be ruled by a King, regulations for the office are given.
- Regulations of the rights, and revenue, of the Levites are given.
- Concerning the future prophet.
- Regulations for the priesthood are given.
Civil law
- Debts are to be released in the seventh year.
- Regulations of the institution of slavery and the procedure for freeing slaves.
- Regulations for the treatment of foreign wives taken in war
- Regulations permitting taking slaves and plunder in war
- Lost property, once found, is to be restored to its owner.
- Marriages between women and their stepsons are forbidden.
- The camp is to be kept clean.
- Usury is forbidden except for foreigners.
- Regulations for vows and pledges are given.
- The procedure for tzaraath is given.
- Hired workers are to be paid fairly.
- Justice is to be shown towards strangers, widows, and orphans.
- Portions of crops are to be given to the poor.
Criminal law
- The rules for witnesses are given.
- The procedure for a bride who has been slandered is given.
- Various laws concerning adultery and rape are given.
- Kidnapping is forbidden.
- Just weights and measures are obligatory.
Composition
Composition history
Since the idea was first put forward by W.M.L de Wette in 1805, most scholars have accepted that the core of Deuteronomy was composed in Jerusalem in the 7th century BCE in the context of religious reforms advanced by King Josiah. The history of Deuteronomy is seen in the following general terms:- In the late 8th century BCE both Judah and Israel were vassals of Assyria. Israel rebelled and was destroyed c.722 BCE. Refugees fleeing to Judah brought with them a number of new traditions. One of these was that the god Yahweh, already known and worshiped in Judah, was not merely the most important of the gods, but the only god who should be served. This outlook influenced the Judahite landowning elite, who became extremely powerful in court circles after they placed the eight-year-old Josiah on the throne following the murder of his father, Amon of Judah.
- By the eighteenth year of Josiah's reign, Assyrian power was in rapid decline, and a pro-independence movement gathered strength in the court. This movement expressed itself in a state theology of loyalty to Yahweh as the sole god of Israel. With Josiah's support, they launched a full-scale reform of worship based on an early form of Deuteronomy 5–26, which takes the form of a covenant between Judah and Yahweh to replace that between Judah and Assyria. This covenant was formulated as an address by Moses to the Israelites.
- The next stage took place during the Babylonian captivity. The destruction of the Kingdom of Judah by Babylon in 586 BCE and the end of kingship was the occasion of much reflection and theological speculation among the Deuteronomistic elite, now in exile in the city of Babylon. They explained the disaster as Yahweh's punishment of their failure to follow the law and created a history of Israel to illustrate this.
- At the end of the Exile, when the Persians agreed that the Jews could return and rebuild the Temple in Jerusalem, chapters 1–4 and 29–30 were added and Deuteronomy was made the introductory book to this history, so that a story about a people about to enter the Promised Land became a story about a people about to return to the land. The legal sections of chapters 19–25 were expanded to meet new situations that had arisen, and chapters 31–34 were added as a new conclusion.
Position in the Hebrew Bible
Themes
Overview
Deuteronomy stresses the uniqueness of God, the need for drastic centralisation of worship, and a concern for the position of the poor and disadvantaged. Its many themes can be organised around the three poles of Israel, Israel's God, and the covenant which binds them together.Israel
The themes of Deuteronomy in relation to Israel are election, faithfulness, obedience, and God's promise of blessings, all expressed through the covenant: "obedience is not primarily a duty imposed by one party on another, but an expression of covenantal relationship." Yahweh has chosen Israel as his special property, and Moses stresses to the Israelites the need for obedience to God and covenant, and the consequences of unfaithfulness and disobedience. Yet the first several chapters of Deuteronomy are a long retelling of Israel's past disobedience – but also God's gracious care, leading to a long call to Israel to choose life over death and blessing over curse.God
Deuteronomy's concept of God changed over time. The earliest 7th century layer is monolatrous, not denying the reality of other gods but enforcing the worship of Yahweh in Jerusalem alone. In the later, Exilic layers from the mid-6th century, especially chapter 4, this becomes monotheism, the idea that only one god exists. God is simultaneously present in the Temple and in heaven – an important and innovative concept called "name theology."After the review of Israel's history in chapters 1 to 4, there is a restatement of the Ten Commandments in chapter 5. This arrangement of material highlights God's sovereign relationship with Israel prior to the giving of establishment of the Law.
Covenant
The core of Deuteronomy is the covenant that binds Yahweh and Israel by oaths of fidelity and obedience. God will give Israel blessings of the land, fertility, and prosperity so long as Israel is faithful to God's teaching; disobedience will lead to curses and punishment. But, according to the Deuteronomists, Israel's prime sin is lack of faith, apostasy: contrary to the first and fundamental commandment the people have entered into relations with other gods.The covenant is based on seventh-century Assyrian suzerain-vassal treaties by which the Great King regulated relationships with lesser rulers; Deuteronomy is thus making the claim that Yahweh, not the Assyrian monarch, is the Great King to whom Israel owes loyalty. The terms of the treaty are that Israel holds the land from Yahweh, but Israel's tenancy of the land is conditional on keeping the covenant, which in turn necessitates tempered rule by state and village leaders who keep the covenant: "These beliefs", says Norman Gottwald, "dubbed biblical Yahwism, are widely recognised in biblical scholarship as enshrined in Deuteronomy and the Deuteronomistic History."
Dillard and Longman in their Introduction to the Old Testament stress the living nature of the covenant between Yahweh and Israel as a nation: The people of Israel are addressed by Moses as a unity, and their allegiance to the covenant is not one of obeisance, but comes out of a pre-existing relationship between God and Israel, established with Abraham and attested to by the Exodus event, so that the laws of Deuteronomy set the nation of Israel apart, signaling the unique status of the Jewish nation. The land is God's gift to Israel, and many of the laws, festivals and instructions in Deuteronomy are given in the light of Israel's occupation of the land. Dillard and Longman note that "In 131 of the 167 times the verb "give" occurs in the book, the subject of the action is Yahweh." Deuteronomy makes the Torah the ultimate authority for Israel, one to which even the king is subject.
Weekly Torah portions
- Devarim, on Deuteronomy 1–3: Chiefs, scouts, Edom, Ammonites, Sihon, Og, land for two and a half tribes
- Va'etchanan, on Deuteronomy 3–7: Cities of refuge, Ten Commandments, Shema, exhortation, conquest instructions
- Eikev, on Deuteronomy 7–11: Obedience, taking the land, golden calf, Aaron's death, Levites’ duties
- Re'eh, on Deuteronomy 11–16: Centralized worship, diet, tithes, sabbatical year, pilgrim festivals
- Shofetim, on Deuteronomy 16–21: Basic societal structure for the Israelites
- Ki Teitzei, on Deuteronomy 21–25: Miscellaneous laws on civil and domestic life
- Ki Tavo, on Deuteronomy 26–29: First fruits, tithes, blessings and curses, exhortation
- Nitzavim, on Deuteronomy 29–30: covenant, violation, choose blessing and curse
- Vayelech, on Deuteronomy 31: Encouragement, reading and writing the law
- Haazinu, on Deuteronomy 32: Punishment, punishment restrained, parting words
- V'Zot HaBerachah, on Deuteronomy 33–34: Farewell blessing and death of Moses
Influence on Judaism and Christianity
Judaism
Deuteronomy 6:4–5: "Hear, O Israel, the is our God, the is one!" has become the basic credo of Judaism, the Shema Yisrael, and its twice-daily recitation is a mitzvah. It continues, "Thou shalt love the thy God with all thy heart and all thy soul and all thy might"; it has therefore also become identified with the central Jewish concept of the love of God, and the rewards that come as a result.Christianity
In the Gospel of Matthew, Jesus cited Deuteronomy 6:5 as a Great Commandment. The earliest Christian authors interpreted Deuteronomy's prophecy of the restoration of Israel as having been fulfilled in Jesus Christ and the establishment of the Christian Church, and Jesus was interpreted to be the "one like me" predicted by Moses in Deuteronomy 18:15. While the exact position of Paul the Apostle and Judaism is still debated, a common view is that in place of the elaborate code of laws set out in Deuteronomy, Paul the Apostle, drawing on, claimed that the keeping of the Mosaic covenant was superseded by faith in Jesus and the gospel.Translations
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Commentaries
- Plaut, W. Gunther. The Torah: A Modern Commentary.
General
- Clements, Ronald. God's Chosen People: A Theological Interpretation of the Book of Deuteronomy. In series, Religious Book Club, 182. London: S.C.M. Press.
- Gottwald, Norman, review of