Japanese dictionary
Japanese dictionaries have a history that began over 1300 years ago when Japanese Buddhist priests, who wanted to understand Chinese sutras, adapted Chinese character dictionaries. Present-day Japanese lexicographers are exploring computerized editing and electronic dictionaries. According to Nakao Keisuke :
It has often been said that dictionary publishing in Japan is active and prosperous, that Japanese people are well provided for with reference tools, and that lexicography here, in practice as well as in research, has produced a number of valuable reference books together with voluminous academic studies.
After introducing some Japanese "dictionary" words, this article will discuss early and modern Japanese dictionaries, demarcated at the 1603 CE lexicographical sea-change from Nippo Jisho, the first bilingual Japanese–Portuguese dictionary. "Early" here will refer to lexicography during the Heian, Kamakura, and Muromachi periods ; and "modern" to Japanese dictionaries from the Edo or Tokugawa era through the present.
Lexicographical terminology
First, it will be useful to introduce some key Japanese terms for dictionaries and collation that the following discussion will be using.The Wiktionary uses English to define a few synonyms including,,,, and. It also uses dictionary to translate six Japanese words.
- jiten "dictionary; lexicon; glossary"
- jiten "character dictionary"
- jiten "encyclopedia, encyclopedic dictionary"
- jisho "dictionary; wordbook; lexicon; glossary"
- jisho "character dictionary; dictionary"
- jibiki "character dictionary; dictionary"
Lexicographical collation is straightforward for romanized languages, and most dictionaries enter words in alphabetical order. In contrast, the Japanese writing system, with kanji, hiragana, and katakana, creates complications for dictionary ordering. University of Arizona professor Don C. Bailey discusses how Japanese lexicography differentiates semantic, graphic, and phonetic collation methods, namely:
- bunruitai "semantic collation; grouping words with similar meanings; thesaurus-like organization"
- jikeibiki "logographic collation; organizing kanji dictionaries by radicals "
- onbiki "phonetic collation; organization by the Japanese syllabary in iroha or gojūon ordering"
The Japanese writing system originated with the introduction of Chinese characters around the 4th century CE, and early Japanese dictionaries developed from Chinese dictionaries circa the 7th century CE. These three Japanese collation systems were borrowed and adapted from Chinese character dictionaries.
The first, and oldest, Chinese system of collation by semantic field dates back to the ca. 3rd century BCE Erya. Only a few dictionaries like the Xiao Erya , Guangya , and Piya used semantic collation. This system is inefficient looking up a word unless the dictionary user already knows its meaning; imagine, for example, using Roget's Thesaurus without an alphabetical index. Bunruitai collation is obsolete among modern Japanese dictionaries, with the exception of thesauri.
The second system of dictionary collation by radicals originated with the 121 CE Shuowen Jiezi . Japanese dictionaries followed the Chinese example of reducing the number of radicals: original 540, adjusted 542, condensed 214 , Kangxi Zidian, and abridged 189. Japanese jikeibiki collation by radical and stroke ordering is standard for character dictionaries, and does not require a user to know the meaning or pronunciation beforehand.
The third Chinese system of ordering by pronunciation is evident in a rime dictionary, which collates the characters by tone and rime. The 601 CE Qieyun is the oldest extant Chinese dictionary collated by pronunciation, and was expanded in the Guangyun and Jiyun . The shortcoming of this unwieldy tone-rime method is that a user needs to know, or guess, the pronunciation of a character in order to look it up. The modern Chinese dictionary improvement is alphabetical collation by pinyin romanization. Japanese onbiki dictionaries historically changed from poetic iroha to practical gojūon ordering around 1890. Compare the former pangram poem with the latter "fifty sounds" 10 consonants by 5 vowels grid.
Early Japanese lexicography
The first Japanese dictionaries are no longer extant and only known by titles. For example, the Nihon Shoki says Emperor Tenmu was presented a dictionary in 682 CE, the Niina with 44 fascicles. The earliest dictionaries made in Japan were not for the Japanese language but rather dictionaries of Chinese characters written in Chinese and annotated in Japanese.Japanese lexicography flowered during the Heian Period, when Chinese culture and Buddhism began to spread throughout Japan. During the Kamakura and Muromachi eras, despite advances in woodblock printing technology, there was a decline in lexicography that Bailey describes as "a tendency toward simplification and popularization".
The following review of the first published Japanese dictionaries is divided into the above lexicographical jikeibiki, bunruitai, and onbiki types.
Graphically organized dictionaries
Jikeibiki graphic collation began with the oldest extant Japanese dictionary: the circa 835 CE Tenrei Banshō Meigi, edited by the Heian monk and scholar Kūkai. It enters approximately 1,000 characters under 534 radicals, and each entry gives the seal script character, Chinese fanqie reading, and definition, but does not give native kun'yomi Japanese readings.The first dictionary containing Japanese readings of kanji was the circa 900 Shinsen Jikyō, which the editor Shōjū compiled from the Yupian and Qieyun. It enters 21,300 characters, giving both Chinese and Sino-Japanese readings, and cites many early Japanese texts. Internal organization innovatively combines jikeibiki and bunruitai methods; a simplified system of 160 radicals is ordered semantically.
The circa 1100 Buddhist Ruiju Myōgishō dictionary lists over 32,000 characters and compounds under 120 radicals. The structure and definitions closely follow the Chinese Yupian and Qieyun. This Heian reference work gives both Sino-Japanese and Japanese readings for kanji, usually with Kanbun annotations in citations from Chinese classic texts.
The circa 1245 Jikyōshū collates Chinese characters primarily by the 542 Yupian radicals and secondarily by semantic headings adapted from the Iroha Jiruishō. This Kamakura dictionary, edited by Sugawara no Tamenaga, exists in 3, 7, and 20 fascicle editions that have convoluted textual histories.
The next jikeibiki collated dictionary of kanji was the circa 1489 Wagokuhen. This "Japanese Yupian" was based on the Chinese Yupian, actually the 1013 Daguang yihui Yupian, which was current in Muromachi Japan. The Wagokuhen went through dozens of editions, which collate entries through various systems of radicals, without any overt semantic subdivisions.
Two historical aspects of these logographically arranged Japanese jikeibiki dictionaries are reducing the number of radicals and semantically ordering them. The radical systems ranged from 542, 534, 160, 120, down to 100. Both the Shinsen Jikyō and Jikyōshū refined logographic categorization with bunruitai-type arrangements. While Chinese dictionaries have occasional examples of semantically ordered radicals, Japanese lexicography restructured radicals into more easily memorable sequences.
Semantically organized dictionaries
Japanese bunruitai semantic collation of dictionaries began with the 938 CE Wamyō Ruijushō, compiled by Minamoto no Shitagō. This Heian dictionary adapts the ancient Chinese Erya dictionary's 19 semantic categories into 24 Japanese headings with subheadings. For instance, Heaven and Earth is subdivided into Stars and Constellations, Clouds and Rain, Wind and Snow, etc.The character entries give source citations, Chinese pronunciations, definitions, and Japanese readings in the ancient Man'yōgana character system.
The circa 1444 Kagakushū was an anonymous Muromachi era Japanese language dictionary or encyclopedia that defined some 3000 words into 18 semantic categories. It was designed for the literate public rather than for priests and literati, and was reissued many times.
Phonetically organized dictionaries
Japanese onbiki phonetic collation began during the late Heian Period. The circa 1144-1165 CE Iroha Jiruishō was the first dictionary to group entries in the iroha order. Words are entered by 47 first kana syllables, each subdivided into 21 semantic groups.The circa 1468 Setsuyōshū was a popular Muromachi dictionary collated in iroha order and subdivided into 12 semantic categories. It defined current Japanese vocabulary rather than borrowed Sino-Japanese compounds, and went through many editions and reprints.
The 1484 Onkochishinsho was the first Japanese dictionary to collate words in gojūon rather than conventional iroha order. This Muromachi reference work enters about 13,000 words, first by pronunciation and then by 12 subject classifications.
All three of these onbiki dictionaries adapted the bunruitai method to collate primarily by first syllable and secondarily by semantic field. This is comparatively less efficient than modern Japanese dictionaries with single-sorting gojūon collation by first syllable, second syllable, etc.
Modern Japanese lexicography
The development of early Japanese lexicography from Chinese–Japanese dictionaries has cross-linguistic parallels, for instance, early English language lexicography developed from Latin–English dictionaries. Nonetheless, modern Japanese lexicography adapted to an unparalleled second foreign wave from Western language dictionaries and romanization.During the Nanban trade Period when Japan was opened to Europeans, the Jesuit Mission Press published two groundbreaking dictionaries. The 1598 monolingual Rakuyōshū gave Sino-Japanese and native Japanese readings of characters, and introduced the small raised circle to indicate the p sound. The 1603-1604 bilingual Japanese-Portuguese Nippo Jisho or Vocabvlario da Lingoa de Iapam dictionary is still cited as an authority for early Japanese pronunciation. The year 1604 was at the beginning of the Edo Period and also, as Nakao points out, the date of the first monolingual English dictionary, the Table Alphabeticall.
During the Sakoku Period when Japan was closed to foreigners, with the exception of the Dutch East India Company, Rangaku influenced Japanese lexicography through bilingual Japanese and Dutch dictionaries. Another notable publication was the 1712 Wakan Sansai Zue encyclopedia, which was based on the 1609 Chinese Sancai Tuhui.
Japanese language dictionaries
Kokugo jiten/jisho means "Japanese–Japanese dictionary, monolingual Japanese dictionary". This "national language" term kokugo, which Chinese borrowed as guoyu, usually refers to the Japanese language as taught in Japanese schools. Nihongo jisho is a neologism that contrasts Japanese with other world languages. There are hundreds of kokugo dictionaries in print, ranging from huge multivolume tomes to paperback abridgments. According to Japanese translator Tom Gally, "While all have shortcomings, the best kokugo dictionaries are probably among the best reference works in existence in any language."The Edo Kokugaku scholar Tanikawa Kotosuga began compilation of the first full-scale Japanese language dictionary, the Wakun no Shiori or Wakunkan. This influential 9-volume dictionary of classical Japanese words was posthumously completed and finally published in 1887.
The first truly modern Japanese language dictionary was edited by the grammarian and English translator Ōtsuki Fumihiko, who used Webster's Dictionary as the model for his pioneering Genkai. His revised 5-volume Daigenkai dictionary continues to be cited for its definitions and etymologies.
The Dainihon Kokugo Jiten, edited by Matsui Kanji, contains 220,000 words, with detailed interpretations and almost complete source material.
The Daijiten, edited by Shimonaka Yasaburō, is the largest kokugo dictionary ever published. The original 26-volume edition, which is still available in condensed versions, entered over 700,000 headwords, listed by pronunciation, and covered a wide variety of Japanese vocabulary.
The Nihon Kokugo Daijiten is the successor to the Dainihon Kokugo Jiten. Matsui Shigekazu, who led the compilation of the dictionary, is the grandson of Matsui Kanji. This multivolume historical dictionary enters about 500,000 headwords, and is currently the most complete reference work for the Japanese language.
The bestselling kokugo titles are practical 1-volume dictionaries rather than encyclopedic works like the Nihon Kokugo Daijiten. For present purposes, they are divided between large-size dictionaries that enter 100,000-200,000 headwords on 2000-3000 pages and medium-size ones with 60,000-100,000 on 1300-1500 pages. The following discussion will introduce the central kokugo dictionaries, excepting the numerous smallest editions.
Larger single-volume Japanese language dictionaries are a highly profitable and competitive market for Japanese publishing houses.
- The Kōjien, edited by Shinmura Izuru, enters 200,000 headwords. This highly respected dictionary gives definitions in chronological order, which is useful for understanding diachronic semantics. Japanese newspaper editorials commonly cite Kōjien definitions as authoritative, but the following dictionaries are sometimes lexicographically superior.
- The Daijirin, edited by Matsumura Akira, has 233,000 headwords. This highly-evaluated rival of the Kōjien gives detailed definitions, and arranges word meanings with the most common ones first, instead of historical order.
- The Daijisen, also edited by Matsumura Akira, has 220,000 entries, and is practically a twin of the Daijirin. Two minor improvements are color pictures instead of line art and replacing classical usage citations with contemporary ones.
- The Nihongo Daijiten, edited by Umesao Tadao, enters 175,000 headwords. It is distinguished by numerous color illustrations and occasional English translations.
Medium single-volume dictionaries have comparative advantages in portability, usability, and price.
- The Sanseido Kokugo Jiten, edited by Kenbō Hidetoshi, has 76,000 headwords. It emphasizes contemporary usage and includes many colloquialisms.
- The Iwanami Kokugo Jiten, edited by Nishio Minoru, has 57,000 headwords. It is marketed as a reliable authority.
- The Shin Meikai Kokugo Jiten, edited by Yamada Tadao, gives 76,500 entries. This popular and distinctive dictionary achieved notoriety from Akasegawa Genpei 's 1996 bestseller that listed many amusingly idiosyncratic definitions.
- The Meiji Shoin Seisen Kokugo Jiten, edited by Miyaji Yutaka and Kai Mutsurō, has 50,000 headwords. It includes many uncommon features such as synonyms, antonyms, stroke orders, and JIS encoding.
- The Gendai Kokugo Reikai Jiten, edited by Hayashi Ōki, gives 69,000 entries, and includes numerous tables explaining Japanese usage.
- The Gakken Kokugo Daijiten, edited by Kindaichi Haruhiko and Ikeda Yasaburō, enters about 120,000 headwords. This was the first Japanese dictionary fully edited with computers, and give illustrative citations from over 350 published sources.
Chinese character dictionaries
Kan-Wa jiten means "Japanese dictionary of kanji ". This unique type of monolingual dictionary enters Japanese borrowings of kanji and multi-character compounds, but is not a bilingual Chinese–Japanese dictionary. A Kan–Wa dictionary headword entry typically gives variant graphic forms, graphic etymology, readings, meanings, compounds, and idioms. Indexes usually include both radical-stroke and pronunciation, and sometimes other character indexing systems like the four corner method.The history of Kan–Wa dictionaries began with early Japanese references such as the Tenrei Banshō Meigi and Ruiju Myōgishō. In 1716, the Edo author of Yomihon, Tsuga Teishō published the Kōki Jiten, a Japanese version of the Kangxi Dictionary, which standardized the Kan-Wa jiten system of 214 Kangxi radicals. The first dictionary titled with Kan-Wa was the Kan-Wa Daijiten, edited by Shigeno Yasutsugu, founder of the Shigaku zasshi. The Daijiten, edited by Sakaeda Takei 栄田猛猪, went through numerous reprints.
The best available Kan–Wa dictionary is unquestionably Morohashi Tetsuji 's 13-volume Dai Kan-Wa Jiten, which contains over 50,000 characters and 530,000 compounds. It was condensed into the 4-volume Kō Kan-Wa Jiten, edited by Morohashi, Kamata Tadashi, and Yoneyama Toratarō, which enters 20,000 characters and 120,000 compounds.
The following major Kan–Wa dictionaries are presented in the chronological order of their first editions. Note that the numbers of character headwords include variants.
- The Kan-Wa Daijiten, edited by Todo Akiyasu, enters 20,000 headwords and 120,000 compounds.
- The Kadokawa Daijigen, edited by Ozaki Yūjirō, gives 12,300 characters and 100,000 compounds.
- The Dai Kangorin, edited by Kamada Tadashi and Yoneyama Toratarō, includes 13,938 characters and 100,000 compounds.
- The Shin Daijiten, edited by Ueda Kazutoshi, enters 21,094 characters and 110,000 compounds, and is a modern revision of the Daijiten.
- The Jitsū, edited by Shirakawa Shizuka, includes 9,500 characters and 22,000 compounds, collated by pronunciation in gojūon order. It combines two other Heibonsha dictionaries edited by Shirakawa, the etymological Jitō and the phonological Jikun.
- The Taishukan Gendai Kan-Wa Jiten, edited by Kimura Shūji and Kurosawa Hiromitsu, enters 7500 characters and 25,000 compounds.
- The Gojūon Biki Kan-Wa Jiten, edited by Okimori Takuya, gives 6,300 characters and 30,000 compounds, collated by pronunciation rather than radical.
- The Shincho Nihongo Kanji Jiten, gives 15,375 characters and 47,000 compounds.
There are currently four major Kan–Ei dictionaries.
- The Modern Reader's Japanese-English Character Dictionary, edited by Andrew Nelson and commonly called "Nelson's dictionary", enters a total of 5,446 characters and 70,000 compounds. It is collated through an idiosyncratic "Radical Priority System" reorganization of the 214 Kangxi radicals.
- The Japanese Character Dictionary With Compound Lookup via Any Kanji, edited by Mark Spahn and Wolfgang Hadamitzky, lists 7,054 characters and nearly 47,000 compounds, collated under a simplified system of 79 radicals. This "reverse dictionary" cross-references compounds by their component characters; for instance, the ten 典 headword lists compounds including jiten under the second position, hyakka jiten under the fourth, etc.
- The New Japanese-English Character Dictionary, edited by Jack Halpern, enters approximately 3,500 characters, emphasizing etymologies and historical semantics. Primary collation follows a "System of Kanji Indexing by Patterns", but pronunciation and radical indexes are provided. It was revised as The Kodansha Kanji Dictionary,, and its abridged Kodansha Kanji Learner's Dictionary.
- The New Nelson Japanese-English Character Dictionary, edited by John H. Haig, is a complete revision of Nelson's, and includes 7107 characters and 70,000 compounds. It employs a modified Kangxi system of 217 radicals, and has a 230-page "Universal Radical Index" that fully cross-references under each component radical. For example, tō or agari is entered under radical 187 馬 "horse", but is also indexed under radicals 1 一 "one", 12 丷 or 八 "eight", 37 大 "big", and 130 月 "meat; moon".
Japanese and English dictionaries
Since Japanese bilingual dictionaries, which are available for most major world languages, are too numerous to be discussed here, the two cases in point are Ei-Wa jiten "English–Japanese dictionaries" and Wa-Ei jiten "Japanese–English dictionaries".First, the history of English–Japanese dictionaries began at the end of the Edo period. The English missionary Walter H. Medhurst, who never traveled to Japan, compiled the first bilingual wordbook An English and Japanese, and Japanese and English Vocabulary. The Dutch translator Hori Tatsunosuke, who interpreted for Commodore Perry, compiled the first true English–Japanese dictionary: A Pocket Dictionary of the English and Japanese Language. It was based upon English-Dutch and Dutch-Japanese bilingual dictionaries, and contained about 35,000 headwords.
English–Japanese dictionary publishing flourished during the Taishō period. Kanda Naibu used the Century Dictionary as the basis for his Mohan English–Japanese Dictionary. Saito's Idiomological English–Japanese Dictionary was edited by Saitō Hidesaburō.Jūkichi Inouye, a graduate of London University, edited Inouye's English–Japanese Dictionary. Kenkyusha's New English–Japanese Dictionary on Bilingual Principles was edited by Okakura Yoshisaburō.
In the present day, four major English–Japanese dictionaries are available.
- Iwanami's Comprehensive English–Japanese Dictionary, edited by Nakajima Fumio, has 110,000 headwords.
- Shogakukan Random House English–Japanese Dictionary, 1973 edited by Katsuaki Horiuchi, 2nd ed. 1994 edited by Konishi Tomoshichi, has 345,000 headwords and 175,000 usage examples.
- Taishukan's Unabridged Genius English–Japanese Dictionary, edited by Konishi Tomoshichi and Minamide Kosei, has 255,000 headwords.
- Kenkyusha's New English–Japanese Dictionary, edited by Takebayashi Shigeru, has 260,000 headwords.
The history of English–Japanese dictionaries began with the arrival of HMS Phaeton, in order to better facilitate sakoku policy in the future due to the Nagasaki Harbour Incident. The Rangaku interpreter, Motoki Shōzaemon, compiled the first Japanese English dictionary, purported to contain 6000 words in 1814 with the help of Dutch scholars in Japan titled "Angeria Gorintaisei".
An Unabridged Japanese–English Dictionary, with copious illustrations, edited by Frank Brinkley, Nanjō Bunyū and Iwasaki Yukichika, adapted and expanded Hepburn's dictionary into 1687 pages. It was primarily intended for English-speaking learners of Japanese. Jūkichi Inouye also edited Inouye's Japanese–English Dictionary, which was the first dictionary intended for Japanese learners of English. Takenobu Yoshitarō edited the authoritative Takenobu's Japanese–English Dictionary, which had more coverage and better usage examples than any contemporary dictionaries. It was subsequently revised as Kenkyūsha's New Japanese–English Dictionary in order to compete with A Standard Japanese–English Dictionary, edited by Takehara Tsuneta, with 57,000 headwords and 300,000 examples; and Saitō's Japanese–English Dictionary, also edited by Saito Hidesaburo, with 50,000 headwords and 120,000 examples. Kenkyusha's mainstay dictionary is now in its fifth edition, with little contest.
- Grand Concise Japanese–English Dictionary, has 210,000 headwords and 110,000 usage examples.
- Kenkyūsha's New Japanese-English Dictionary, edited by Watanabe Toshirō, Edmund R. Skrzypczak, and Paul Snowden, has 480,000 headwords.
Specialized dictionaries
Kogo jiten means "dictionary of Classical Japanese." Pre-modern or Classical Japanese can vary considerably from the modern language, and kogo dictionaries are essential for anyone reading historical texts.
- Kadokawa Kogo Daijiten, ed. Nakamura Yukihiko, is the most comprehensive, with 80,000 classical words, including many proper names
- Jidaibetsu Kokugo Daijiten has a total of 70,000 headwords, with diachronic distinctions in semantics
- Shogakukan Kogo Daijiten, ed. Nakada Norio, has 55,000 headwords compiled from the Nihon Kokugo Daijiten
- The Obunsha Kogo Jiten, edited by Matsumura Akira, has 43,500 headwords. The most famous and popular Classical Japanese dictionary in Japan. The first edition went on the market in 1960, a total of 11 million copies have been sold so far, in 2001 9th edition went on.
- The Obunsha Zenyaku Kogo Jiten, edited by Miyakoshi Ken, has 22,500 headwords. This dictionary is the first Classical Japanese dictionary adopted on the electronic dictionary in 2001.
- Gendai Yōgo no Kiso Chishiki
- Jōhō Chishiki Imidas
- Chiezō
- Kihon Gairaigo Jiten, ed. Ishiwata Toshio
- Kankōchō no Katakanago Jiten, ed. Shimokawabe Jun, 10,000 headwords
- Ryakugo Daijiten, ed. Kato Daisuke
- Konsaisu Katakanago Jiten, 47,400 "katakana words" and 7,800 acronyms
- Kadokawa Ruigo Shin Jiten, ed. Ōno Susumu, 49,000 entries
- Ruigo Dai Jiten, ed. Shibata Takeshi, 76,000 entries
- Nihongo Dai Shisōrasu, ed. Yamaguchi Tsubasa, 200,000 entries
- Sanseido Ruigo Shin Jiten, ed. Nakamura Akira, 50,000 entries
Electronic and online dictionaries
The specific meaning of handheld "electronic Japanese dictionary" became popular in the early 1980s. Modern stand-alone dictionaries resemble a PDA or small clamshell computer. Different manufacturers and models offer various user features, Japanese input methods, and multiple-volume capacities for switching between dictionaries of Modern Japanese, Classical Japanese, Kanji, English, medical terminology, etc.
The general denshi jisho meaning of "dictionary database software" has evolved from early floppies that Japanese users copied onto their local computers to contemporary server-based dictionaries accessible by users with cell phones. Japanese dictionary software is available in either freeware or commercial versions, both of which are found online.
Many online dictionaries of Japanese are based upon Jim Breen's voluntary EDICT Project, which consists of the 170,000 entry-strong core JMdict and EDICT files, and associated files such as KANJIDIC for kanji. Eijirō, another major online database, is targeted primarily at native Japanese speakers, and as such lacks some of the features to make it more accessible to non-native speakers. Here are some major non-commercial online reference sites.
- , primary web interface for EDICT
- , features EDICT-based dictionary, Japanese to Romaji/Kana/English translator, also includes KANJIDIC, KanjiVG, sample sentences, and Text to Speech.
- , features EDICT-based dictionary KANJIDIC, KanjiVG and sample sentences
- , features EDICT-based dictionary KANJIDIC, KanjiVG, sample sentences, conjugation tables and searching by conjugation
- , features EDICT-based dictionary, Text to Speech, KANJIDIC, KanjiVG and learning features
- , Japanese Bi-Directional English/Japanese Dictionary
- , pop-up definitions from EDICT
- , interactive interface for EDICT
- , EDICT and Kanji dictionary in a learning environment
- , interface to search and browse EDICT
- , FOKS EDICT server with fuzzy searching
- , an online version of the Eijirō dictionary
- , features many dictionaries and corpora such as EDICT, as well as original dictionaries.
- , with Kenkyusha's English and Japanese dictionaries, and Sanseido's Daijirin
- , online text or webpage translator using Sanseido dictionaries
- , free access to Sanseido's Daily Concise dictionaries or subscription access to a dozen more
- , interface using Shogakukan dictionary software