Kiliwa language
Kiliwa, alternate Names: Kiliwi, Ko’lew or Quiligua is a Yuman language spoken in Baja California, in the far northwest of Mexico, by the Kiliwa people.
History
The Kiliwa language was extensively studied by Mauricio J. Mixco, who published Kiliwa texts as well as a dictionary and studies of syntax.As recently as the mid-1900s, Mixco reported that members of the native community universally spoke Kiliwa as their first language, with many Kiliwas also bilingual in Paipai. At the start of the twenty-first century, Kiliwa is still spoken; a 2000 census reported 52 speakers. However, the language is considered to be in danger of extinction.
Kiliwa is a language of the Yuman Family Language Summit, held annually since 2001.
Classification
Kiliwa is the southernmost representative of the Yuman family, and the one that is most distinct from the remaining languages, which constitute Core Yuman. The Kiliwa's neighbors to the south, the Cochimí, spoke a language or a family of languages that was probably closely related to but not within the Yuman family. Consequently, the Kiliwa lie at the historic "center of gravity" for the differentiation of Yuman from Cochimí and of the Yuman branches from each other.Linguistic prehistorians are not in agreement as to whether the Kiliwa's linguistic ancestors are most likely to have migrated into the Baja California peninsula from the north separately from the ancestors of the Cochimí and the Core Yumans, or whether they became differentiated from those groups in place. The controversial technique of glottochronology suggests that the separation of Kiliwa from Core Yuman may have occurred about 2,000-3,000 years ago.
Phonology
Consonants
Intervocalic allophones of /p, t, k, kʷ/ can occur as . An approximant sound such as a /j/ sound after a glottal /h/ can become devoiced as , as with a devoiced sound being an allophone of /hʷ/.Vowels
There are three vowel quantities; /i, u, a/, that can also be distinguished with vowel length /iː, uː, aː/. Close vowel sounds /i, u/ can range to mid vowel sounds as , and with vowel length as . An epenthetic schwa sound can occur within root-initial consonant clusters.Pitch Accents
High level, High-falling level, Low level.Orthography
Alphabet
The Kiliwa language is written using a modified Roman alphabet, as the language's culture has historically been unwritten and entirely oral. It consists of 15 consonants: / b /, / ch /, / g /, / h/, / j /, / k /, / l /, / m /, / n /, / ñ /, / p /, / s /, / t /, / w /, and / y /.| Letter | Phoneme | Kiliwa Examples | English Translation |
| b | /β/ | A bobuín Ábel | Which? Where? |
| ch * | /t͡ʃ/ | Chiin Jcheet | Laugh Steal |
| g | /ɣ/ | Mugau Msig | Flour One |
| h ** | /h/ | Ha’ ’haa | Mouth Yes |
| j | /x/ | Ja Nmooj | Water Short |
| k | /k/ | Jak Kujat | Bone Blood |
| l | /l/ | Lepée Msiglpaayp | Liver Six |
| m | /m/ | Meyaal Smak | Tortilla Leaf |
| n | /n/ | Nay Mpáan | Boy Sister |
| ñ | /ɲ/ | Ñieeg J ñieel | Black Lariat |
| p | /p/ | Pa Gap | Stomach Pain |
| s | /s/ | Smaa ‘Kiis | Sleep Large |
| t | /t/ | Tmaa Mat | Eat No |
| w*** | /w/ | Kuwaa | Sit |
| y | /j/ | Yiit Tay | Seed Big |
| ' | /ʔ/ | Msí | Very Star |
There are also 5 short and 5 long vowels: / a /, / a: /, / e /, / e: /, / i /, / i: /, / o /, / o: /, / u /, and / u: /. These are represented in the chart below.
| Vowels | Kiliwa Examples | English Translation | |
a | /a/ | Ábel Tay | Where Big |
aa | /a:/ | Jaa Maau Yaaywaa | To go Grandma scorpion |
e | /e/ | Eñoop Pelwat Miy pí jsé | Fight To return Quill |
ee | /e:/ | Eel Teey Juwee | Sore Night To give |
i | /i/ | Ipáa Kaichmaa Kemelootí | People Money/metal/iron |
ii | /i:/ | Yiit Chíin Tiinkíil | Seed Laughter mockingbird |
o | /o/ | Kotí p J silo | Heart Hole |
oo | /o:/ | Eñoop Kekoo | Fight/ To struggle Woman |
u | /u/ | Ujaa Tkuey | Look after/look out for Goat |
uu | /u:/ | Uusmaat Piyauup Kuu | Sleep To carry/load Grandpa |
Other digraphs used in the Kiliwa language include: gu, hu, ju, ku, and xu. They are shown in the chart below.
| Digraphs | Phoneme | Kiliwa Examples | English Translation |
gu | / ɡʷ/ or /ɣʷ/ | Págu J kuígu | Rabbit Hunt |
hu | /hʷ/ | Phuk’ ii ’Mphuh-mi | Thud This box/bag |
| ju | /xʷ/ | Juwaa u Ju sawi | Seat Clean |
| ku | /kʷ/ | Kujat Tukuipaay | Blood Animal |
| xu | /xʷ/ | m-xumay čxu’paa | Your son To hurdle |
The inclusion of /, / is used as a brief pause, such as that in Spanish.
Numbers
Numbers in Kiliwa can be expressed up to several thousands without the use of Spanish loanwords. Counting is done using both fingers and toes. There is a resemblance of the Kiliwa word ‘sal’ which is the root for ‘finger/hand’.| Number | Kiliwa | English translation |
| 1 | Msíg | One |
| 2 | Juwak | Two |
| 3 | Jmi’k | Three |
| 4 | Mnak | Four |
| 5 | Salchipam | Five |
| 6 | Msígl paayp | Six |
| 7 | Juwakl paayp | Seven |
| 8 | Jmi kl paayp | Eight |
| 9 | Msíg tkmat | Nine |
| 10 | Chipam msíg | Ten |
The following numbers are formed by using the form for the ten's place 'chipam' followed by its multiplier digit.
| Number | Kiliwa | English translation |
| 10 | chipam msig | Ten |
| 20 | chipam juwak | Twenty |
| 30 | chipam jmi’k | Thirty |
| 40 | chipam mnak | Forty |
| 50 | chipam salchipam | Fifty |
| 60 | chipam msigl paayp | Sixty |
| 70 | chipam juwakl paayb | Seventy |
| 80 | chipam jmi’kl paayp | Eighty |
| 90 | chipam msigl tmat | Ninety |
The hundreds are formed by using the expression ‘chipam msig u’ kun yuu chipam’ followed by the multiplier digits found in that of numbers 1-9.
| Number | Kiliwa | English translation |
| 100 | chipam msig u’ kun yuu chipam msig | One hundred |
| 200 | chipam msig u’ kun yuu chipam juwak | Two hundred |
| 300 | chipam msig u’ kun yuu chipam jmi’k | Three hundred |
| 400 | chipam msig u’ kun yuu chipam mnak | Four hundred |
| 500 | chipam msig u’ kun yuu chipam Salchipam | Five hundred |
| 600 | chipam msig u’ kun yuu chipam msígl paayp | Six hundred |
| 700 | chipam msig u’ kun yuu chipam juwakl paayp | Seven hundred |
| 800 | chipam msig u’ kun yuu chipam jmi kl paayp | Eight hundred |
| 900 | chipam msig u’ kun yuu chipam msíg tkmat | Nine hundred |
Lastly, the thousands are formed by using the expression ‘chipam msig u’ kuetet’ before using the multiplier digits once again.
| Number | Kiliwa | English Translation |
| 1,000 | chipam msig u’ kuetet msig | One thousand |
| 2,000 | chipam msíg u’ kuetet juwak | Two thousand |
| 3,000 | chipam msig u’ kuetet jmi’k | Three thousand |
| 4,000 | chipam msig u’ kuetet mnak | Four thousand |
| 5,000 | chipam msig u’ kuetet salchipam | Five thousand |
| 6,000 | chipam msig u’ kuetet msígl paayp | Six thousand |
| 7,000 | chipam msig u’ kuetet juwakl paayp | Seven thousand |
| 8,000 | chipam msig u’ kuetet jmi kl paayp | Eight thousand |
| 9,000 | chipam msig u’ kuetet msíg tkmat | Nine thousand |
| 10,000 | chipam msig u’ kuetet chipam msig | Ten thousand |
Morphology
The morphology in the Kiliwa language consists of many affixes and clitics. More of these are available on the verb rather than the noun. These affixes are usually untouched and added on to a modified root.Singular and Plurals
In Kiliwa there are multiple ways of pluralizing words. There are several to differentiate it from the singular form. The most common affixes are t, cháu,m, u y si’waa.| Singular | Plural | Language |
| This Mí | These Mít | 1.English 2.Kiliwa |
| Sit Kuwaa | All of you sit Kuwaat | 1.English 2.Kiliwa |
| Come! Kiyee | All of you come Kitiyee | 1.English 2.Kiliwa |
| Want Uñieey | We want Uñieey cháu | 1.English 2.Kiliwa |
| Owl Ojóo | Owls Ojóos cháu | 1.English 2.Kiliwa |
| Hill Weey | Hills Uweey | 1.English 2.Kiliwa |
| Coyote Mlti’ | Coyotes Mlti’ si’waa | 1.English 2.Kiliwa |
| Eye Yuu | Eyes Yuum | 1.English 2.Kiliwa |
There are also some instances in which the plural form changes the vowels, for example: Kill! ; Kill them! ; Grab! ; Grab them! ; Stand! ; All of you stand!.
Adverbs
Used in adjectives or nouns to denote a superlative degree of meaning.Examples:
| Good/better | Mgayy ‘maay |
| Dwarf | Nmooj ‘maay |
| Heavy | Mechaa ‘maay |
| Injured | Tgap ‘maay |
| Horrible | J’chool ‘maay |
Other adverbs include: Mgaay, Mák, Paak, Psap mí, J’choom, Kiis i’bem, Mat pi’im kún
Examples:
| Is better | Mgaay gap |
| She is the best | Paa mgaay gap etó |
| He is better than me | Paa mgaay gap ñal ím mat |
| There it is | Paak kuwáa |
| The car passed by there | Owa’ kose’jin e’ míl pajkaay tómat |
| Stand right there | Paa ku’u’ kiyúu |
| It rained a lot yesterday | J’choom ju’jak ‘maay |
| My dad left yesterday | Ñab s’oot j’choom kupáa tómat |
| I went to the beach yesterday | J’choom ‘ja’ táyel ajaa |
| I’ll never visit you | Mat pi’im kún mil wáal ajaa mat |
| Why don’t you ever come? | Piyím mat pi’im miyee mat mí o’ |
| Why don’t you ever visit me? | Mat pi’im kun piñee mí mat i’ |
Adjective
-Tay: something of a big/great size for animals and objects or someone obtains a higher power/status due to profession.Examples:
| Someone with a large head | ‘iy tay |
| Someone with a large nose | pi’ tay |
| Big/large dog | ‘tat tay |
Suffix P is used to signify something of a smaller degree for several adjectives.
Examples:
Conjunctions
Conjunctions are connect two or more ideas into a single sentence.There are also disjunctive conjunctions to separate two or more mutually exclusive options presented in a sentence.Examples: /and/ translates to in Kiliwa to é.
| Juan and Pedro | Juan é Pedro é |
| Water and salt | ‘ja é ‘kuiiy é |
| Dog and cat | ‘tat é nmi’ é |
| You and I | Ma’ap é ñaap |
| Chair and table | Juwáa u’ é ymaa tay u’ |
Verbs
- Verbs are more complicated than nouns in Kiliwa language
- There is more verb prefixes present, and less within suffixes and infixes
- The prefixes demonstrate more structure within the grammar
Conjugation of the verbs
- Example in Kiliwa: Conjugation of Verb Tmaa
Past & Present
| I eat | Ñaap tmaa |
| You eat | Ma p tmamaa |
| He eats | Ñipaa tmaa |
| We eat | Páñaap tmaa |
| They eat | Ñipaat tmaat |
Past
| I ate | Ñaap kuiil tmaa |
| You ate | Ma p kuiil tmamaa |
| He ate | Ñipaa kuiil tmaa |
| We ate | Páñaap kuiil tmaat cháu |
| They ate | Ñipaat kuiil tmaat cháu |
Future
| I will eat | Ñaap tmaa seti uma |
| You will eat | Ma p tmamaa seti uma |
| He will eat | Ñipaa tmaa seti uma |
| We will eat | Páñaap tmaat cháut seti uma |
| They will eat | Ñipaat tmaat cháut seti uma |
Nouns
In the Kiliwa language they are marked by the definite and indefiniteDeterminer NP
The Kiliwa has 3 degree of distance that appear in the third person pronoun
Examples:
| -mi | “This” |
| -paa | “That” |
| -ñaa | “That” |
The demonstrative NP
Kiliwa language is also measured in the independent third-person pronoun in the demonstrative NpExamples:
Mi-čaw → ‘these;they’ →
paa-čaw → ‘those;they →
ñaa-čaw → “those;they →
mi-t čam ‘This/he leaves ’
mi-čaw-t čaam-u → ‘These/they leave ’
m ʔ-saaw ‘I see this one/him/her’
mi-čaw=m=xwaq-m ʔ-čam → ‘I leave with these/them’
mi-čaw-l ʔ-saaw ‘I looked into these one/them’
Gender Markers
When referring to a male human or animal one adds KumeeyWhen referring to a female human or animal one adds Kekoo
Axis
Example: kumeey is male and kekoo is female| Dog | tat |
| dog | tat kekoo |
| dog | Tat kumeey |
| Cow | Jak |
| cow | Jak Kekoo |
| Bull | Jak Kumeey |
Syntax
Kiliwa is a verb-final language that usually follows the order subject-object-verb. Dependent object clause should be found before the verb, whereas relative or adjectival clauses appear following the noun they modify. While behavioral context, negations, auxiliaries, etc. can alter the placement of certain aspects, the Object-Verb form remains true in most sentences.Example of transitive sentence in which the structure is simply object-verb:
| Kiliwa | Subject | Object | Verb |
| mit mltiʔčawm pahmaa | this one - mit | coyotes - mltiʔčawm | eats/ate - pahmaa |
Sentences with a negation typically contain the object-verb format, however, basic structure would be subject - pre-verb negative - object - verb - final negative. Example:
| Kiliwa | Subject | Pre-verb Neg. | Object-Verb | Final Neg. |
| kʷumiiymit kʷat ʔthatpaam hqhaa mat | This man - kʷumiiymit | did not - kʷat | shoot dog - ʔthatpaam hqhaa | mat |
Toponyms
The following Kiliwa toponyms are from the map given in Mixco.;Settlements
- xaʔ kwpan - Agua Caliente
- xpiʔ kwnaan - San Isidro
- mxwaa - Los Coches
- pnyil - Santo Domingo
- kwʔiy yuwuʔ - San Quintin
- xwiym xaʔ - San Felipe
- ʔipaʔ cʔaa - Tijuana
- xwa nymat - Mexicali
- xaʔtay hwatuʔ - Ensenada
- yuwl ʔmat - Santa Catarina
- kwʔiy yaquʔ - Salinas
- xyil - Cañón de la Esperanza
- xyaaw - San Matías Pass
- kwmsalp - Colnett Point
- ʔmuw wiiy - Cerro Borrego
- nyaay wiiy - peak just to the south of Cerro Borrego
- muw waʔ wiiy - Cerro Salvatierra
- ʔqhaay spkwin - peak just to the south of Cerro Salvatierra
- mt waay walu wiiy - Picacho de Diablo
- ʔxaal haq - Sierra de San Pedro Martir
- kwnyiil wiiy - Cerro Colorado
- xaʔ tay - Pacific Ocean
- cwilu tay - Arroyo Grande
- ʔmat pcux - San José Creek
- mswan - San Telmo Creek
- xmir - San Rafael River
- xaʔ hyil - Colorado River