Meriam language
Meriam or the Eastern Torres Strait language is the language of the people of the small islands of Mer, Waier and Dauar, Erub, and Ugar in the eastern Torres Strait, Queensland, Australia. In the Western Torres Strait language, Kalaw Lagaw Ya, it is called Mœyam or Mœyamau Ya. It is the only Papuan language in Australian territory.
Classification
Meriam was classified in the Eastern Trans-Fly family of the Trans–New Guinea Phylum by Stephen Wurm, who however felt that these have retained remnants of pre-Trans–New Guinea languages; this is followed by Ethnologue. In 2005 Malcolm Ross concluded that the Eastern Trans-Fly languages were not part of the Trans–New Guinea phylum. R. M. W. Dixon regards claims of a relationship between the Fly River languages and Meriam as unproven, though what he bases his claim on is not clear, as Meriam Mir has a high cognacy rate with its sister languages, and a certain amount of mutual intelligibility is claimed by Meriam speakers. Mitchell finds that Meriam Mìr has 78% cognates with its sister Trans-Fly Papuan languages, the remaining vocabulary being mainly of Australian origin. Such Trans-Fly cognates include personal pronouns, and verbal and nominal morphology.| Source | WCL | MM |
| Australian | 22.5% | 5% |
| Papuan | 22.5% | 62.5% |
| Derivations/Compounds | 20% | 17.5% |
| Austronesian | 12.5% | 2.5% |
| More than one possible origin | 15% | 17.5% |
| Unclassifiable | 32.5% | 20% |
Meriam Mìr and its neighbours
Meriam has around 40 percent of its vocabulary in common with its unrelated Western Torres Strait neighbour Kala Lagaw Ya, which is an Australian language. The shared words cover a wide range of semantic domains, though not verbs. This latter strengthens arguments about genetic diversity, however there is still much to suggest mutual influence. The common vocabulary range from "exact cognates" to words that appear related, but have undergone semantic changes, as in the following selected from a list of 250 items , partial "cognates" 26 and "cognates" with semantic differentiation number 34 ):| WCL | MM | meaning |
| dhangal | deger | "dugong" |
| bal | bar | "across/crooked" |
| gamu | gem | "body" |
| riidh | lid | "bone, leaf rib" |
| saamu | sam | "cassowary" |
| thawal | tawer | "coast" |
| gabu | geb | "cold" |
| ùmai | omái | "dog" |
| ngœnakap | nerkep | "heart" |
| naigay | naiger | "north/north-east" |
| wathai | watwet | "dry" |
| WCL | meaning | MM | meaning |
| dhang KLY dhaanga | "edge, tooth" | deg | "edge, side" |
| wati | "bad, evil" | wìt | "wrong doing" |
| mùdh KLY mùùdha | "shelter, backyard, shaded place, haven" | mùd | "shade" |
| gœiga stem gœigœyi- | "sun, day" | gerger | "day" |
| wœibadh | "roe" | wer | "egg" |
| Baba, Baab | "Dad, Daddy" | bab | "father" |
| kapu | "one " | kepkep | "few" |
| karùm | "goanna; clumsiness, mistake" | karom | "black skink; clumsiness, mistake" |
| ngœna | "breath, intellect, memory" | ner | "breath" |
| kaimi; kaimel, KKY kalmel | "companionship, companion, co-"; "together, along with" | kem | "company; associative " |
| WCL | meaning | MM | meaning |
| thapi | "thin piece of bark or wood, page" | tep | "fruit skin" |
| kapu | "prong" | kep | "arrow" |
| maitha | "belly" | mait | "chest" |
| susu | "white sap" | susu sus | "spray, foam" "white sap" |
| uum awum | "death" "mourning" | eumi baum | "die" |
| buudh | "white paint" | bud | "mourning" |
| aap apa- | "garden bed" "down, below, under" | sep | "earth, ground; down, below, under" |
| KKY, KulY kom KKY, KulY kœman KLY, MY-KY kœman | "heat, burn" "steam" "heat, burn, steam" | kemur | "smoke" |
| bibir KLY biber | "strength, power" | beber beberbeber | "weight" "heavy, weighty" |
There are also various items of semantic relationship, but not formal relationship, such as WCL puuy, MM lu "plant, tree; magic".
Mitchell and Piper used the Holman et al. 40-word list below, which shows 9 exact items, 5 partial, and 3 semantically related words. However, this list was designed for use with Euro-Asian languages, and is perhaps somewhat inappropriate; for example, no horned animals exist, neither language has a verb ‘come’, and Holman et al. assume one form for 'we'; WCL has 4, and MM has 2.
PCD Proto Central-District Papuan Austronesian, PETrf Proto East Trans Fly; POC Proto Oceanic Austronesian; PP Proto Paman; PSEPap Proto South-East Papuan Austronesian
| word | MM | Gizrra | Bine | Wipi | PETrF | Kiwai | Idi | WCL | Gudang | Urradhi | PP | PSEPap |
| louse | nem | ngüóm, ngóm | ngaamo, ngame, ngamwe | ngüɨm | *ŋamͻ | nimo | A kabana | aari | aaku tick, louse | aku tick, louse | -- | -- |
| two | neis | nis | neneni | nœmog cf. MM mog "piece" | *ni- | netewa, Bamu teibo | komblebe | ùka- "two" ùkasar "two " | ilaabayu | Y/A udhima, At udhyama/makyaana, W aroma/adhoma | *gujarra | *drua |
| water | gur "salt water" | -gul- "wash" bapür- PlOb, apür VN | atnana wash VN | gony "washing" imangena "swimming" | *gulV "water, swim, wash" | obo, Kope oru'o wash self VN | Idi tetu "wash", D bemine "sea water" | wœr~wur~uur~wœir "water" | G ungunya salt water | -- | -- | *wair "water" |
| water | ni | naiy, nai, nae | niye, niiye | ni, niya, nyɨ, ngi | *niya/*nayi | obo | ni | ngùki | -- | -- | *ŋugu/*ŋugi | -- |
| ear cf. hear | laip, girip | gublang, gublam | tablamo | yɨpiya, yɨpyar, yɨkɨpya, yɨrpya, irkɨpia ear; yɨpiarom, yakrom outer early | *? | gare ear, sepate lobe, external ear | ran ear, ika external ear, A laandra | kaura kurusai- | iwunya | Y iwuny At ikuchi W iwui | *gaalu | -- |
| death | eud death; eumi Sg, baum PL "die"; bud "mourning" | büdül "dead", budül- "die" | budre death; uje die | budɨ "death"; uj "dead, death" | *wudi "die" | odio, P para, M uparu "dead"; orisiai, M/Kerewo oihiai "die" | kududar "die" | uum "death, unconsciousness" awum "mourning, wailing" buudh "white paint" | ithuurra/ithuulma "dead" | Y/A yuthu, At ruthu, W alghan "dead", W unga "mourn", U alga "death" | -- | -- |
| I | ka | kó | cane, kane | kon | *ka | mai | ngén, A ngana | ngayi | G yuba, aipaana | Y/A/At ayu | *ŋayi | -- |
| liver | o | konkon | D yoa/siba; A zebe | siib liver; centre | iipa "heart" | Y/A yipa, At lipa, W tepa, tipa | *jiba | -- | ||||
| eye | ponì erkep | ilküp, ilkóküp | irecu | yɨr, yer "eye", yɨrkɨp, ilkɨp, yɨrtyen, yɨttwin "eyeball" | *iri "see", *kapu "seed, body part, fruit, etc." | damari, Kerewo idomai | kalye, A yende "eye ", ikép/ikapa "eye-ball" | pùrka daan cf. -kap "body part" | daanha, rathair | Y anngal, At ipanh, A angwaa, W yeithi/yithi | -- | *dano "lake, pool" |
| hand | tag | tang, tan arm, hand | imo "hand, arm" | yɨm | *taaŋV, *iimo "hand, arm" | K tu, Bamu tuu hand, arm | tang, A tranga | geth | arta | Y/At/A mata, W ara | *mara | *taŋa |
| hear | asor- | -rrkrru-, -rrkurru- | -tecij- hear, ätecija VN hear/listen | utkunj~utkund- | *Vrkundi | irovidiro, Mawata erebidiro, Kope orovidio VN | A dandarla | karnge-, kœrngai VN; kùrùsai- ear | ? | Y/A/At ami- | -- | *roŋor |
| tree | lu "tree, plant, magic" | nugup "tree" | uli, uri "tree, plant" | wul, ul "tree" | *wuli, *ugu "tree" | ota "tree, plant", Kope nu'a "tree" | lu, A ra/rati-ra/ro | puuy, OKY puuRi; yuu "spit, skewer" | puri "tree", yuuku "wood", upiirri "medicine" | Y/At/A yuku "wood, tree, stick, log", Y/At/A upirri "sore, painful, witchcraft" | *lugu "tree, wood" | *pui magic |
| fish | lar | wapi, wapui | kibu, cupya, kopae, kopäi | kabum; waji | -- | arimina/irisina food, fish; Kerewo na, Kope nai fish | kwalba | waapi | waapi | Y yatpan/yadpa, A inhanyii, W nheya | -- | -- |
| name | nei | ngi, ngui | ngi | ni, niœ, nyœ | *nyilya | paina, Kerewo paena | ben, A bena | nel Saibai variant nei | yini | At angyal, A anyii, W anyel | -- | -- |
| stone | bakìr | inglkup, inglkurp | kula, kura | gli, gɨmo, gɨmokɨp, kula, guma, nadi, motɨr | *kula | kura, M nora | dadar, A dader | kùla | uulpa | Y/A aypany, At aypanh | *gulan | -- |
| tooth | tìrìg cf. ereg "eat" deg "edge, side" | zirgup | ampu | Y/A ampu, At ngampu | *jaaŋa "tooth, edge, etc." | -- | ||||||
| breast | nano ama, apu "mum, mother, aunty" nanosus "milk" | ngum, ngiam, ngüam; aip mother | ngaamo, nono; mago "mother", yääye "Mum" | ngom, ngum, ngiam, ngɨmb, ngɨmdor; mog, ag "mother" | *ŋaamͻ "breast, mother" *maago mother *susu "breast, milk" | bodoro; aida, M maramu, Bamu onoo, Kerewo mamo mother | ngém/nono "breast"; nene "mother" | ama "mum, mother, aunty" aapu "mother, aunt" susu, susuikai "milk" | yuungu "breast, milk", athiinya "mother" | Y/At/A ungunyu "mother, breast, milk" A also awucha, yathu "milk", W nono "mother, breast" | *ŋamŋ "breast, mother" *juju "breast, milk" | *susu "breast, milk" |
| path | gab | kwat, kuat | gaabo, raare | nia, nga, nyau | *gaabͻ | gabo | nyénggo | yabu, KLY yaabu | alka | Y/A ulumu, At ulumu/anyaarra | ? | POC *tyapu |
| you Sg | ma | ma | maane, maano | man | *ma | rai | be | KLY/KulY/KY ni KKY/OKY ngi | tuuba/tuuba | Y/At antu, A antu, W endouva | *ŋin/*nin | *kau |
| fire | ur | uur | ulikobo, uliobo, urikobe, ulikobe, olobo, uli, Kunini muye-uliobo | uur, para | *uur, *kͻbͻ, *pVrV "fire", *wuli "tree, wood" | era, Bamu mahi | yu | mui | uma | Y/At/A uma, W entovo | *tuma | -- |
| tongue | werut | ulit | wätä, wärtä, warta, wate | welat, weat, vlat, yat | *wilͻtV | watotorope, Kerewo mototobe | D dogmar, A dangamai | nœi | untaara | Y yalan, punhu, At lalan, A yalan | -- | -- |
| skin | gegur; tep skin of fruit | sopai, sopae; kwan, kuan bark | tääpo, tääpe, taape, tääpwo; uli tääpo bark | gɨm ; wul gɨm, gɨm, yug bark | *taapi | tama | thoe | gœngáw, KLY gœngaawu, KulY gœngáy | ikwurra skin ranga bark | Y/At/A akuny skin, bark' | *Cagurr | - |
| night | ki | irrüb, irrub, irrib | kiye, ciye | sɨwɨny, sɨwɨn, sowɨny, sɨrɨn, sowi, tsowony, sɨwɨng, sɨrɨng, sɨrɨm | *kiya | duo, Bamu duwo | D kuteine, A kwete | kubil | G yulpalga night, darkness | Y yupul, Y manara, At manma night, darkness, W jagula | -- | -- |
| leaf | lam | lam, lang, pórgae~prangai, prórngae, pórngae | laamo, racme, raame | rom | *laamͻ "leaf" | ota-pasa, M ota-pea | oro-popo/ru-pi/ro-rual ; pi | niis | itrara "leaf" | Y/At/A yukum yampa, A ithagha, W alway; Y/At/A yampa "leaf, flower, lung"; AT yamparra, A inparra "lung" | -- | -- |
| blood | mam | ói, óe | uudi | woi, woj, kus, ku | *wodi | arima, Kope ora | D mem, mam, A teia | kùlka | ichunya | Y/A lukuny, At uchuny | -- | -- |
| horn | -- | -- | -- | -- | -- | -- | -- | -- | -- | -- | -- | -- |
| person | -am/-iam; le | -pam; pam, pama | -yame/-yamo; binamo, biname, binam; imä, im male, rooriye, loori "man" | -am, -iam; rɨga "man, male" leo "husband" | *pyama; *iͻ | dubu, Kerewo meréha; arubi,-rubi people, Kerewo oubi; Kope dubuiro person, man; M auana man, didiri men, mere male | la "man" | -ig mabaig "walk" | ama | Y/At/A ama | *bama | -- |
| knee | kolo | -- | kumkak, yɨmkak elbow | *kͻlͻ "knee, elbow, corner" | -- | -- | kulu cf. kudu "elbow", kœru "corner" | yurtu elbow | Y/At yutu, A yurtu elbow | *yurru "elbow" | *turu "knee, elbow" | |
| knee | kokni kok "leg joint+?" wageb "kneecap" | wagusingül, wagósingül, wagasingól | koko/coco | kɨ, kɨror, kum; kumop knee ball, | *kͻkͻ "leg joint" | popu knee, elbow | D tubu, tang-kum; putukupi kneecap; A tran-kwimbe elbow | kokan "kneecap"; kuku inside part of knee, knee joint | iingku knee | Y/A/At wungku, W owen | PP *wuŋgu "knee" | -- |
| one/other | nerut "another" wader "some, others" netat one | darrpan, dórpan "one, one of group" darrü "other" | yepä, neetera one; nuuja other, another | yepa one; nɨnda other, others, some; b’enga other, another | *ni+ͻtV other *pͻnV, *ni+taV "one" | ata, Bamu kaiibi one, other, nau one | D tupulibi | wara, war "one of group, other" dhurai "some, others" wœrapùn, ùrapùn, ùrpùn "one only" wara "one of group, other" + -pùn | ipiyamanha inyaanha another | Y/A ipima, Y also ipinyama, At nhipima; W wema one, alone Y unya, At unyinha, wanhu, A unyinha other, different W emo other | *nyupun, *NipiyamaNa | -- |
| nose | pit "nose, beak, point " | syók | keke, cece | so, sok, sokak | ? | wodi, Kope modi | D murung, A wede | piti "nose" | iyi nose, beak | Y/A iyi, W enmoi, nundagel; At umughanhu | -- | -- |
| full | osmer | buku, iib | puuwe | ngor full gùdapœlam KLY/KulY/MY-KY pùsakar, cf. sakar "space" | murku gorged | Y/At/A wampan full/swollen, W weithinyo full | -- | -- | ||||
| come | ta-, te-, ti-, t- | to'-, tü- | t- | t- irrealis; ik-, -itk-, -etk- come, tu- Pl, menamena, menon go, come VN | *ta "come, approach" | -ogu-, Kerewo -oho-, Kope -o'u- go, come | -be- | ngapa TR/INTR adverb, cf. nga- 1st person, pa- telic, -pa dative bœi INTR adverb, cf. pœipai, KKY bœi "nearside" | impiibinhu come, approach, ainpirra go | Y/A/W ana, At ana/anma go, come | -- | -- |
| come | taba , maiem | -- | tädi M, tocli F | ayo | -- | -- | abe Sg, yebe PL; A yau | aye, KKY aya imperative adverb | -- | -- | -- | *mai "come" |
| star | wer | wimurr | wale, walo, gugie, griga | ikui, ɨki, ɨkwi, guje | *wai | gugi, M zogubo, Kope oroi'io | D piro, A kwatai | Wœœy, OKY WœœRi "Venus" thithúy, KLY thithuuyi, OKY thithúRi; zugub constellation, significant star | uunpi | Y/At/A unpi, At wintamwintama | -- | *waRi sun PSEPap*pituqon, PCD *pitui, *pitiu, *pitiriu "star" |
| hill | paser | podo hill, dorro high ground | podo, doro hill, doro mainland, shore | podo, dor hill | *pͻntͻ, *doro | podo, Mawata also damera; idodoro cliff | duidui, A pad | paad ; baudhar mountain, peak | pada | Y yantal, At rantal, A yantaa; W mara mountain | *baanda "top" | *pantar "hill, mountain" |
| bone, leaf rib | lid | kus | kaako, kaake, caace bone; raare bone, rare shell, spoon | kak, kaak, kagɨ kak, kaga bone, stick, piece, stalk; ror bone | *riida/*raadi "bone, leaf rib" | soro, M kako | A kwetr/kut | riidh | athirra | Y/At/A apudha, A avoidance ikyalitha, W watha/ua | -- | -- |
| we inclusive | mi, mer- inclusive | mi | mine | men, mɨn | *mi | nimo, Kerewo imo | ybi | ngœba dual inclusive ngalpa plural inclusive | ? | Y/At/A ali DU, ana PL | *ŋali inclusive; *ŋana exclusive | *kita |
| we exclusive | ki, ker- exclusive | ki | kine, cine | sɨn | *ki | nimo, Kerewo imo | bi, A ba | ngalbai, KKY ngalbe, archaic KulY ngœibai, dual exclusive ngœi, ngœlmù-, KKY/MY-KY ngœimù-, OKY ngœRi plural exclusive | aaku | Y/A/At ampu | *ŋali inclusive; *ŋana exclusive | *kami |
| drink | iri | -nan- | ene- | -ona-~-ena- Sg, anain- NSg | *ini/ani/ina | Kope idio drink, odio he is drinking | A ine/ngi -ni-/-na- drink water | wani- | ungkenka drink | Y/At ungye, A ungya drink, eat; W ical drink | -- | -- |
| see, find | dasmer, erdar | -sen- see | -pän, pan- see, find, ire see VN | yɨr -ong-, yɨr -a- see, look, yeri-, yiry-, oraka VN find, search, ɨdar Sg, adar NSg find | *ira see | eáuri see VN | -ndee- see | iima- | angkanya find | W iangin find | *kiima "see" | -- |
| new | kerkar | küsil, küsül, kósil new; kari, karian little, small | kirece, mamye, cireni, mamie~karte new; matimati, matikäli, matikolä, matikola, matikari, geglo little, small | sisel, sisɨl | *kari/*kira | oliómoto | -- | kayin | -- | -- | -- | -- |
| dog | omai | umai, umae, ume | drenggo, drego, drengo | yongg, yongk, yongga, yangg, yoorɨnk | *omái | Kerewo kaukau, Kope umu | dréngg | ùmai | ingkudiinya | Y/At/A utagha | *gudaga | -- |
| sun, day | gerger "day, daylight" lìm "sun" | abüs, óbüs | bimu, abeji, abweji, abuji; gugie, griga "star" | bibɨr day, lom, lomkongga, lemkogal, ganggal sun | *limͻ/*lͻmi | M iwio, Parama ivio, Kerewo hewio, Kope hivio sun; sai day | yébodh sun | gœiga, gœygœyi-, gœigi-, OKY gœRigaR | inga | Y/At/A wunga, W unga, W mungbatho day'' | *gari, *wuŋa | -- |
Recent loans
The main source of loan words to the language since the mid 1800s has been Yumplatòk and English. There are also some minor loans from Lifu/Drehu, Polynesian, Indonesian, Philippine, Japanese, and European origin. Many such outsiders were recruited – or in some rare cases black-birded – in the 19th century for pearl diving and other marine work, while others were missionaries with the British and Foreign Bible Society.Dialects
The language is currently dialectless. However, there was once a separate dialect spoken on Erub and Ugar islands, characterised in part by the retention of phonemic distinctions between 'ng', 'g', 'n' and 'r' where these have fallen together in two ways in Meriam Mir. The sound 'ng' in Modern Meriam has become 'n' at the beginning of words and 'g' within words; 'n' in many cases has become 'r' within words. Examples are remembered in one important Erub folktale :Erub : Aka nade ki andinane? Ge au?
Mer : Aka nade ki ardirare? Ge au?
Where will we put it? There?
Erub : Mena inggandane/ingandane! Keniba uzen unken a keniba imut unken.
Mer : Mena igardare! Keriba uzer urker a keriba imut urker.
Keep carrying it! Our paddles and our poling poles are still strong.
The earliest records of Meriam Mìr included the phrase debelang good taste/nice, in present-day Meriam Mìr debe lag. This shows that the 'ng' > 'n'/'g' change is of fairly recent date; lang, now lag, is identical to the Gizrra lang of the same meaning.
Phonology
Vowels
The sounds represented by and are allophonic. appears mainly in syllables before the stress accent and optionally in open unstressed syllables otherwise. appears in stressed syllables and in unstressed closed syllables.For some speakers the following pairs exhibit variation, and perhaps have unidentified allophonic variation: and , and , and, and, and and. Older speakers appear to keep the vowels more distinct.