Particles of the Kagoshima dialects
The grammatical particles used in the Kagoshima dialects of Japanese have many features in common with those of other dialects spoken in Kyūshū, with some being unique to the Kagoshima dialects. Like standard Japanese particles, they act as suffixes, adpositions [|or] words immediately following the noun, verb, adjective or phrase that they modify, [|and] are used to indicate the relationship between the various elements of a sentence.
Unlike central Japanese dialects, particles in the Kagoshima dialects are bound clitics, as they have the effect of resyllabifying the last word they attach to. So, [|for example], the standard forms 本を hon [|o] "book ", 書きを kaki o "writing " and まりを mari o "ball " would be realized as, and in most of northern and central Kagoshima, and, and in parts of Kagoshima's southern mainland.
Resyllabification has [|also] led to the reanalysis of some particles in a few dialects. For instance, the topic particle a has been completely superseded by the form [|na] in Izumi, which in most mainland dialects is merely a variant of a after a moraic nasal.
Resyllabification rules
When a word is followed by a particle that starts with a vowel, the final syllable of that word will be fused with the particle and be subject to Kagoshima's vowel coalescence rules as well as other sound changes occurring in the regional dialect. As a simple example, when the word これ kore "this" is followed by the topic particle は, it becomes こりゃ korya "this=". A secondary sound change in Mainland Kagoshima then causes the medial ry to become y, giving the common form こや koya "this=".Two main exceptions to this rule exist:
- If a word's underlying form ends in a moraic nasal, an epenthetic is inserted between the word and the particle. For example, 本 hon "book" becomes 本は honna when fused with the topic particle.
- If a word's underlying form ends in a long vowel or sequence of vowels, then an epenthetic consonant is sometimes inserted between the word and the topic particle. In the case of topic particle は a and the accusative particle を o, the epenthetic consonant is. In the case of the dative particle い [|i], the epenthetic consonant is. This rule is not consistently applied across all dialects of Kagoshima.
| Meaning | Underlying form | Pronunciation in isolation | Topic particle | Accusative particle | Dative particle |
| this | |||||
| writing | or | or | |||
| ball | |||||
| song | |||||
| hitting | , or | ||||
| person | |||||
| study | |||||
| book |
The rules of resyllabification differ [|only] slightly in peripheral areas. The following table shows how particles change the final syllable of words in the Sato dialect of the Koshikijima Islands.
| Meaning | Underlying form | Pronunciation in isolation | Topic particle | Dative particle |
| this | ||||
| thing | ||||
| song | ||||
| hitting | ||||
| ticket | ||||
| river | ||||
| lye |
- Note: The accusative particle is not listed above [|because] the Sato dialect replaced it with the particle ば ba. For example, the accusative form of koi "this" is simply koi ba.
| Meaning | Underlying form | Pronunciation in isolation | Topic particle | Accusative particle | Dative particle |
| this | or | ||||
| person | |||||
| sugar | |||||
| now | |||||
| time | |||||
| candy | |||||
| oil | |||||
| mountain | |||||
| care |
- Note: Blank entries indicate that examples could not be found or inferred [|from] the source.
Historical attestation
For the most part, the works of Gonza show that the topic particle は a and the dative particle い i followed the same rules as they [|do] today, fusing with the final syllable of the preceding word and being subject to the same exceptions that exist today. The accusative particle を wo, however, was independent and shows fusion in only a couple recorded examples.
| Meaning | Recorded example | Modern standard Japanese |
| Thief | núsda | 盗人は nusuto wa |
| Cow, heifer | úsha | 牝牛は meushi wa |
| Autumn | akyà | 秋は aki wa |
| Night | yorà | 夜は yoru wa |
| I | óra | 俺は ore wa |
| Meaning | Recorded example | Modern standard Japanese |
| Country | kúni | 国に kuni ni |
| Person | ftè | 人に hito ni |
| Garden | níwe | 庭に niwa ni |
| One generation | íchden | 一代に ichidai ni |
| I | óre | 俺に ore ni |
| Meaning | Recorded example | Modern standard Japanese |
| Write a character | ʒó kak | 字を書く ji o kaku |
| What | nányu | 何を nani o |
| Country | kún wo | 国を kuni o |
| Me | ói wo | 俺を ore o |
Index of particles
A-Z index
- [|bakkai]
- [|batten]
- de
- do
- [|don]
- [|doma]
- [|ga]
- [|gaa]
- [|gii]
- [|hozu]
- i
- [|ina]
- ka
- ka
- [|kara]
- ke
- ke
- [|mo / n]
- [|mon]
- [|mon ka]
- na
- nado
- [|naa / nee / nii]
- [|no]
- o
- ba
- [|see]
- [|seka]
- [|shiko]
- to
- to
- a
- ai / a / i
- [|yara]
- [|yokka]
- [|yoo]
- [|zui]
Index by meaning
- also
- and
- [|as if]
- [|at / in / to]
- because
- [|but]
- [|emphatic markers]
- [|even]
- for example
- from
- [|just]
- [|more than]
- [|of / 's]
- [|object markers]
- [|question markers]
- only
- or
- [|roughly]
- tag markers
- topic marker
- [|to the extent of]
- [|towards]
- [|until / up to]
Syntactic case-marking particles
To illustrate, the following example shows how the word "cat" is explicitely marked to indicate that it is the subject of the transitive verb, while the word "fish" is marked to indicate that it is the object of the verb within the phrase "The cat ate the fish".
Note that most case-marking particles do not have a direct translation in English, as modern English mostly relies on word order, although it does have some basic subject and object marking in personal pronouns such as "he" versus "him".
Ablative
kara
Like standard Japanese, the particle から kara is used to indicate a time or place from which something begins. In this sense, it can generally be translated to "from" in English. Regional variants of this particle include かあ kaa and か ka. In the Higashimorokata district of Miyazaki specifically, the form かい kai is used.Unlike standard Japanese, this particle is not used to mark a reason. Instead, the Kagoshima particle で de is used for that purpose. For example, in the standard Japanese sentence 町から取ってくるものですから machi kara totte kuru mono desu kara "because it was bought from town", the first instance remains から kara in Kagoshima while the second would become で de:
In a few Kagoshima dialects, the particle から kara can be used in two additional ways that are different from standard Japanese.
In the first, it can be used to indicate the mean used to arrive to a situation, overlapping with the standard particle で de "by" in this sense. For example:
The particle から kara does not replace the other usages of で de "by". For instance, it cannot be used to mark the tool used to achieve an action. So in the sentence "to write with a brush", で de would be used.
In the second, it can be used to mark the agent in an adversative-passive sentence, replacing the standard particle に ni. For example:
Accusative
o (1)
The particle を o is a case particle that marks the direct object in a sentence. Depending on the word that precedes, it can also be pronounced う u.Like the particles あ a and い i, when を o is added to a word, the final syllable of that word will be subject to resyllabification. For instance, こい koi "this" becomes こよ koyo "this=".
Example:
oba and ba
The particle をば oba or ば ba marks a topicalized direct object. This form historically derives from a contraction of the accusative marker wo and the topic particle ɸa. In several Western Kyūshū dialects, ba has completely replaced the particle o as the accusative marker. However, the use of the particle ba within the Kagoshima dialects is restricted mainly to the Koshikijima Islands and is not as widespread elsewhere. Considered an archaism in Standard Japanese, the form oba, pronounced uba in Southern Kagoshima, is more frequently used instead. In contrast with the particle o, oba can be described as an emphatic accusative; that is, it places more emphasis on the direct object.Examples:
Comparative
yokka
The particle よっか yokka or its variant よか yoka is used in place of standard Japanese より yori and, like it, it has two main functions. The first is that it can be used to indicate the origin of something, akin to "from" or "beginning from" in English. The second is that it can be used to make comparisons, roughly translating to "more than" or "rather than". In southern Koshikijima and northern Tanegashima, the variant よいか yoika is used, while in northern Koshikijima, the forms よきゃあ yokyaa and ゆうきゃあ yuukyaa are observed. Etymologically, the particle is considered a contraction of より yori and か ka.Dative and locative
i
The particle い i and its variant に ni can be used to mark a location, indicate a direction, mark an indirect object, or mark the agent in a passive sentence. Its usage is very similar to those of the particles に ni "in/at/to" and へ e "to/towards" in standard Japanese.Like the particles は a and を o, when い i is added to a word, the final syllable of that word will be subject to resyllabification.
ina
The particle いな ina generally means "for", "in", "to" or "in order to". Etymologically, it is a combination of the particles い i and は a and is cognate with the standard Japanese construction には ni wa.Genitive and nominative
In Old Japanese, the particles が ga and の no had overlapping functions as genitive and nominative markers, and were ultimately distinguished by their degree of politeness. The Kagoshima dialects, like other Western Kyūshū dialects and Ryukyuan varieties, are notable in that this original distinction is largely maintained, although some regional variation in usage occurs.ga
In Kagoshima, the particle が ga is considered somewhat more derogatory and occurs mainly with a human subject or possessor..Examples:
no
In contrast with the particle が ga, the particle の no is considered more neutral or polite.The particle の no is sometimes reduced to ん n.
Lative
see
The particle せえ see and its many regional variations marks direction. It can roughly be translated as "in" or "to" in English and is comparable in usage to へ e in standard Japanese. Etymologically, the particle is said to originate from the expression 様に sama ni "by way of, in the state of".Nominalizing
to
Other than its standard usages, the particle と is also a nominalizing particle in the Kagoshima dialects. That is, it can be appended to a verb, an adjective or another utterance to transform it into a noun. This usage is similar to how の no is used in standard Japanese.The particle と can also be used at the end of declarative sentences to add mild emphasis.
ta
The particle た ta or its variant たあ taa is a combination of the nominalizing particle と to and the topic particle は a. It can be combined with a verb or adjective to turn it into a noun, similar to how ものは mono wa and のは no wa work in standard Japanese.Purposive
ke (2)
The particle け ke can be used with verbs in their stem form to indicate purpose or intent. It normally occurs in the construction ～け行っ ~ ke iʔ "to go ". In parts of the Koshikijima islands, the variant きゃあ kyaa is used; in Tanegashima, the variant かあ kaa is used; in parts of the Tokara islands, げえら geera is used; in southern Satsuma, the variant げ ge is used; and amongst older people in the Higashimorokata district of Miyazaki, the variant げ ge is observed.Note that this particle can only be used with verbs. With nouns, the particle い i is used instead. For example:
Binding particles
Topic
[|(w)a]
The particle は a or wa is a topic marker. That is, it marks the main thing being talked about in a sentence. Like the particles を o and い i, when は a is added to a word, the final syllable of that word will be subject to resyllabification. For instance, こい koi "this" becomes こや koya "this=" when topicalized.Conjunctive particles
Conjunctive particles are a category of particles that connect words, phrases or clauses together.Concessive
batten ("but")
The particle ばってん batten is a conjunctive particle meaning "but" or "although". It is less commonly used than どん don. In the peripheral islands of Tanegashima, Yakushima and Tokara, the variants ばって batte and ばっちぇ batche are also used alongside ばってん batten.don ("but")
The particle どん don is a conjunctive particle meaning "but" or "although" and typically follows a declarative verb.From an etymological standpoint, while the particle どん don is technically cognate with the standard Japanese particle ども domo "even though", it may be more accurate to say that it stems from a reduction of the standard expression けれども keredomo "but" which carries the same meaning. This is supported by the fact that, in neighboring provinces such as Miyazaki, the form けんどん kendon is used, which can be further shortened to けん ken.
Consequential
de ("because")
The particle で de can be combined with verbs or adjectives to mean "because". It is used in place of the standard Japanese particles から kara or ので node.Coordinating
particles are particles used to link more than one noun or nominalized phrase together. They generally cover the meanings of "and" and "or".to ("and")
The conjunctive particle と to serves to coordinate nouns or noun phrases and can be translated to "and" in English. This particle is the same in both pronunciation and usage as standard Japanese.Note that verbs and adjectives are coordinated using verbal suffixes instead of this particle. See Kagoshima verb conjugations: Te form for details.
yara ("and")
The conjunctive particle やら yara is used to coordinate nouns and signal that the list is incomplete. In this sense, it can translated to "A, B and C " or "A, B, C, etc.". The particle is equivalent in usage to the standard Japanese particle や ya.ka ("or")
The disjunctive particle か ka serves to coordinate nouns or noun phrases and can be translated to "or" in English. This particle is the same in both pronunciation and usage as standard Japanese.Adverbial particles
Adverbial particles are a broad category of particles that attach to the end of nouns or phrases and "express such meanings as restriction, exemplification or similarity", amongst others.Approximation
doma ("roughly")
The particle どま doma typically follows nouns and marks approximation. It can be translated as "roughly", "approximately", "just about", "around" or "or so" in English. The closest standard Japanese equivalents would be ばかりは bakari wa, ぐらいは gurai wa and などは nado wa.Etymologically, どま doma stems from the word 共 tomo, meaning "together with" in standard Japanese, and the topic particle は a.
Exemplification
nando or nado ("for example")
The particle of exemplification なんど nando and its variant など nado roughly translates to "for example" or "such as" in English.Focus
mo or n ("also")
The focus particle も mo and its variant ん n marks inclusion or similarity and roughly translates to "also", "too" or "as well" in English.seka ("even")
The focus particle せか seka expresses an extreme example and roughly translates to "even", " only" or "as long as" in English. The particle is usually followed by a verb in the conditional form. From a usage perspective, this particle is equivalent to the standard Japanese particle さえ sae "even", to which it is related.Example from Koshikijima:
Restriction
bakkai ("just")
The restrictive particle ばっかい bakkai, roughly translating to "just", is functionally the same as standard Japanese ばかり bakari.hozu ("to the extent of")
The restrictive particle ほず hozu is used to show the extent to which the following verb or adjective applies to what precedes. In English, it can be roughly translated with the expressions "to the extent of", "as as" or "so that". This particle is cognate with the standard Japanese particle ほど hodo and is largely limited to the Higashimorokata district of Miyazaki. In Kagoshima, the particle しこ shiko is used instead.shiko ("to the extent of")
The restrictive particle しこ shiko is used to show the extent to which the following verb or adjective applies to what precedes. In English, it can be roughly translated with the expressions "to the extent of", "as as" or "so that". The particle しこ shiko is used in place of standard Japanese だけ dake or ほど hodo. Etymologically, しこ shiko may be related to standard Japanese しき shiki, found in compounds like これしき koreshiki "only this much", as well as しか shika "only", which is limited in standard Japanese to negative phrases.Terminative (or limitative)
gii ("until, up to")
The terminative particle ぎい gii or its variant ぎ gi is used to indicate a time or place as a limit and can be translated as "until" or "up to" in English. It is functionally similar to the particle まで made in Japanese. Etymologically, the particle originated from the noun 切り kiri meaning "end" or "bound", which also gave way to the standard Japanese particle きり kiri, meaning "just" or "only".zui ("until, up to")
The terminative particle ずい zui is used to indicate a time or place as a limit and can be translated as "to", "until" or "up to" in English. It is functionally similar to the particle まで made in Japanese. In the Higashimorokata district of Miyazaki, the form ずり zuri is used.Etymologically, the particle ずい zui originates from the noun 出り "setting out ", which was historically pronounced dzuri in Kagoshima and is equivalent to the form 出 de "coming out" in modern standard Japanese. This is evidenced by the fact that the verb 出る "to go out; to exit; to set out" and its nominal form are still pronounced ずい zui or dzui in the traditional Kagoshima dialects.
In Koshikijima, ずい zui can also be used in the sense of "even" or "so far as":
Sentence-final particles
Sentence-final particles, sometimes called sentence-ending particles or interactional particles, are uninflected lexical items that appear at the end of a phrase or sentence. Unlike other types of particles such as case particles or conjunctive particles, sentence-final particles do not indicate the grammatical relation of different elements in a clause. Instead, they can be described as indicating "the illocutionary force of the proposition as well as the speaker's attitude towards the proposition and/or the interloculor". This means that, among other things, sentence-final particles can be used to indicate how true the speaker believes the utterance is, to express the speaker's personal feelings towards the utterance, or to solicit a reaction from the listener. They can also vary based on the speaker's relation with the listener and the degree of politeness they wish to express.Modality markers
(w)ai, (w)a and i
The particle あい ai or more rarely わい wai is a sentence-final particle used to bring awareness to something and to indicate that the speaker is expressing their own view. Unlike other sentence-final particles, this particle attaches to the preceding word and fuses with the vowel of the final syllable of that word. Functionally, this particle is similar in usage to the particle よ yo in standard Japanese. In the Koshikijima islands, the variants あ a and わ wa are used.Etymologically, the particle is said to originate from the historical pronoun 我 ware "I" and to be cognate with the sentence-ending particles わ wa, わい wai and ばい bai used dialectally throughout Japan.
After a verb in its volitional form, the particle is reduced to い i and serves to add insistence to what is being said. Examples from Izumi, Kagoshima include 飲もい nomoi "let's drink", 行こい ikoi "let's go", 見ろい miroi "let's see" and しゅい shui "let's do ".
do
The sentence-final particle ど do, sometimes lengthened to どお・どー doo, is used mark an assertion and to grab the attention of the addressee, if one is present. It is functionally similar to the particles よ yo and ぞ zo in standard Japanese as well as the particle どー doo used in most Ryukyuan languages such as Okinawan.gaa
The sentence-final particle があ gaa or sometimes just が ga is used to mark a statement that the speaker believes to be true. In English, it can be overtly translated as "I believe " or "I think ", whereas in standard Japanese, there is no direct equivalent to this particle, so it is often translated with the tag-marker ね ne "eh?" or "right?", with the declarative modal particle よ yo or with the modal auxiliary of probability だろう darou.mon
As a regular noun, もん mon means "thing" and often follows verbs in their nominal form or stem form to create a compound noun. For example, 食い物 kuimon "food" is a compound of 食い kui "eating" and 物 mon "thing".This word can also be used at the end of a sentence, where it functionally acts like both a nominalizer and a sentence-final particle marking a cheeky comment, sometimes translated as "you know" in English. When used as such, it is always written in kana as もん mon. In regards to its usage, the particle もん mon typically follows adjectives and verbs directly and is often also followed by the copula じゃ ja "is".
mon ka
The compound particle もんか mon ka typically follows a declarative verb and serves to both nominalize the phrase and to repudiate or dismiss the idea brought forth. In this sense, it can be overtly translated as "as if " or "there's no way ". It can also simply be translated in English with negation, e.g. " will not".Functionally, this compound particle is the same as standard Japanese もんか mon ka, and ultimately derives from a combination of the sentence-final particle もん mon and the question particle か ka.
naa, nee and nii
The sentence-final particles なあ / なー / な na, ねえ / ねー / ね ne and にい / にー nii are used to indicate or solicit acknowledgement, agreement or confirmation regarding non-controversial information. In English, these particles are typically translated using tag question markers such as "eh?", "right?", "isn't it?" or "aren't you?" because of their use in utterances where the speaker is looking for agreement or confirmation from the listener. That said, they also play a role in narration where they help indicate that the statement uttered is incomplete and is the basis for what will be said next, and that the speaker may or may not be seeking acknowledgement from the listener.Etymologically, these particles are all cognate with the standard Japanese particle ね ne and its variant な na, common in most Western Japanese dialects.
A study on sentence-final particles in the Sato dialect of Koshikijima found that, while な na and ね ne mostly overlapped in usage, speakers felt that the particle ne was not native to their dialect and was instead an artifact of standard Japanese. The same study confirmed that the usage of ne was very similar to that of the particle ne in standard Japanese and that some minor differences with the native particle na existed. One such difference is that ne tends to only be used when speakers mix in standard Japanese grammar. Another is that it is not used when talking to oneself, whereas the native particle na can be.
o
The particle お o or おー oo is a sentence-final particle used to stress the utterance. It tends to follow declarative or imperative statements and is similar in usage to the particles よ yo and わ wa in standard Japanese.Etymologically, it is likely that this particle is a holdover from Old and Middle Japanese and that it has the same origins as the accusative case particle を o, which is used to mark the direct object in a sentence. In Old Japanese, the particle を started as an exclamatory particle expressing consent and response and was sometimes used in sentence-final position as an interjectional particle used to mark admiration in a declarative phrase or to add strength to an imperative phrase.
In Tanegashima, this particle fuses with the preceding word. For example, the phrase 良かお yoka o "it's good" would become 良こー yokoo.
yoo
The sentence-final particle よー yoo or sometimes just よ yo is used mark an assertion and to grab the attention of the addressee, if one is present. Etymologically, it is cognate with the standard Japanese particle よ yo.A study on sentence-final particles in the Sato dialect of Koshikijima found that, while よ yo and ど do mostly overlapped in usage, speakers felt that the particle yo was not native to their dialect and was instead an artifact of standard Japanese. The study, however, was not able to validate this claim as speakers did not tend to mix in standard Japanese grammar when the particle was used ne. The study only found one salient difference between the two particles which was that speakers did not use yo when speaking or thinking to themselves, preferring do'' instead.