Puroik language
The Puroik language, Puroik people never themselves calledSulung, is a language spoken by the Puroik people of Arunachal Pradesh in India and of Lhünzê County, Tibet, in China. Puroik is a Kho-Bwa language.
Besides their own language, the Puroik also use Nishi, Hindi, and Assamese. Literacy is very low, at about 2%. Those who are literate use either the Bengali script, Devanagari or the Latin alphabet to write Puroik.
Geographical distribution
Remsangpuia lists the following Puroik villages. The Puroik also live in Nyishi, Aka, and Miji areas.- East Kameng District: Chayangtajo, Pipu, Pakke Kessang, Lada, Bameng, Seijosa, Seppa, Sawa, Khenewa, and Pipu-Dipu circles
- Kurung Kumey District: Koloriang, Sarli, Hurli, Nyopin, and Tali circles
- Papum Pare District
- West Kameng District
The Puroik are located from the Upper Subansiri River drainage basin to the Tawang River drainage basin. Names include ' and '. There are about 3,000 people as of 2002, who are classified as ethnic Lhoba people by the Chinese government.
Dialects
Lieberherr consider Puroik to be a dialect chain where geographically distant dialects are mutually unintelligible, whereas dialects located close to each other are mutually intelligible. The internal diversity of Puroik is about equal to that of the Western Kho-Bwa branch. Lieberherr and Lieberherr & Bodt list the following dialects of Puroik, provided here in geographical order from east to west.- Kurung-Kumey dialect: spoken in Kurung Kumey district, which is located to the east of Chayangtajo. May be most similar to the Puroik dialect described in Li Daqin and other Chinese sources.
- Chayangtajo dialect: spoken in Sanchu and neighboring villages of Chayangtajo circle, East Kameng district, Arunachal Pradesh, India by a few hundred speakers.
- Lasumpatte dialect: spoken in Lasumpatte village in Seijosa near the Assam border. Most inhabitants have recently migrated from the Chayangtajo area.
- Sario-Saria dialect: spoken in three villages by a few hundred speakers.
- Rawa dialect: spoken in several villages in and around Rawa by a few hundred speakers. Also includes Poube village.''
- Kojo-Rojo dialect: spoken in the villages of Kojo and Rojo, and possibly also in Jarkam village.
- Bulu dialect: spoken only in Bulu village by 7–20 speakers.
Classification
James A. Matisoff considers Puroik to be a Tibeto-Burman language that has undergone sound changes such as:
- Proto-Tibeto-Burman nasals > voiced stops
- Proto-Tibeto-Burman *-a > -i
Grammar
The Sulung grammar notes here have been adapted primarily from Tayeng.Number
Number is not considered a grammatical feature in Sulung. Plurality is expressed, when required to be stated clearly by the huangda meaning all, many, etc.Gender
There is no grammatical gender in Sulung. However the two sexes are distinguished when necessary.To indicate other relatives and persons the suffix -aphu is added for the male and -amua for the female. Demonstrative, and Interrogative.
Case
Seven cases may be distinguished: Subject, Object, Instrumental, Dative, Ablative, Possessive, and Locative.Pronoun
The Personal Pronoun distinguished three persons and two numbers. The same form is used for both genders.Adjective
There are four types of adjectives: adjective of quality, adjective of quantity, demonstrative adjective, interrogative adjective.Verb
Sulung verbs do not indicate number and person.Tense
The three principal tenses, including the indefinite and the continuous are indicated by means of particles used as suffixes.Moods
There are four moods: Imperative, potential, conditional, and subjunctive.Imperative uses the suffix -bo, -da, and -ge for commands.
Potential uses the suffix -pa to express the ability to perform.
Conditional uses -re/-hangra to express obligation.
Adverb
Adverbs may be distinguished into four classes: Time, place, manner, and interrogative.Vocabulary
The following list of 181 words in three Puroik dialects, in addition to Proto-Puroik, is from Lieberherr. Lieberherr reconstructs Proto-Puroik, drawing data from the Chayangtajo dialect and the newly described Kojo-Rojo and Bulu dialects. Forms from the Rawa and Saria dialects have also been included.| Gloss | Puroik | Puroik | Puroik | Proto-Puroik |
| 1 | guu | goo | goo | *goo |
| 2 | naa | naa | *naŋ | |
| 3 | vɛɛ | wai | wɛɛ | *vai |
| 1 | gə-nii | g-rei | *gə-ńei | |
| 2 | na-nii | na-rei | *na-ńei | |
| 1 | gə-se-niʔ/ | gə-se-nii | gə-sɛ-nii | *gə-se-niʔ |
| imperfective suffix | -na | -na | -na | *-na |
| pretemporal | -ryila | -ruila | -ruila | *-ruila |
| one | *? | |||
| two | niʔ | nii | *niʔ | |
| three | ɨm | ɻɨm | ɯk | *ɨm̄ |
| four | vii | wɻei | wɻei | *vɻei |
| five | wuu | woo | wuu | *woo |
| six | rəʔ | rəʔ | rək | *rək |
| seven | mə-ljɛɛ | jei | ljɛɛ | *mə-ljai |
| eight | mə-ljao | jau | *mə-ljaa | |
| nine | duNgii | duŋgɻee | doŋgɻɛɛ | *doŋ-gjee |
| ten | suɛN | ʃuan | suaik | *suan̄ |
| above | a-tʃaN | a-tʃjaŋ | a-tʃuaŋ | *a-tʃuaŋ |
| alive | a-seN | a-sən | a-sik | *a-sen̄ |
| ant | gamgɻuʔ | gɻɛŋgɻo | *gjamgjoʔ | |
| awaken | ʒao | ʒau | jaa | *jaa |
| bamboo | ma-bjao | mə-bɻau | mə-bɻaa | *ma-bjaa |
| before | bui | bui | bue | *bui |
| belly | a-ɬyi-buN | hui-buŋ | a-ɬue-buk | *a-ɬui-buŋ̄ |
| belly | a-ɬyi | a-hui | a-ɬue | *a-ɬui |
| bird | pə-duu | pə-doo | pə-dou | *pə-dou |
| bite | tɔɔ | tua | tua | *tua |
| bitter | a-tʃaʔ | a-tʃuaʔ | a-tʃjaa | *a-tʃuaʔ |
| black | a-hjɛN | a-hjeĩ | a-hjɛ̃ | *a-hjaĩ |
| blow | fuu | fuu | *fuu | |
| blue | a-pii | a-pii | a-pii | *a-pii |
| blood | a-hui | a-fui | a-hue | *a-hui |
| bone | a-zɛN | a-zan | a-zaik | *a-zan̄ |
| bow | lɨɨ | lei | lei | *lei |
| branch | a-kjɛɛ | hɻɨn-kɻei | hɻeŋ-kɻɛɛ | *kjai |
| breast | a-njɛɛ | a-njei | a-njɛɛ | *a-njai |
| breathe | ʒuu | ʒuu | joo | *joo |
| bridge | ka-tyiN | ka-tun | ka-tuik | *ka-tun̄ |
| brother | a-nɔɔ | a-nua | anua | *a-nua |
| burn | rii | rii | rii | *rii |
| can | muɛN | muan | muaiŋ | *muan |
| cane | rii | rei | rei | *rei |
| cave | wuʔ | uʔ | oo | *woʔ |
| chicken | ||||
| child | a-dəə | a-doo | a-dou | *a-dou |
| cloth | ɛʔ | aiʔ | aik | *at |
| crazy | a-bjao | a-bɻaa | bɻaa-bo | *abjaa |
| cry | tʃap | tʃjap | *tʃjap | |
| cut | pɛN | pan | paik | *pan̄ |
| cut | iʔ | iʔ | ii | *iʔ |
| day | a-nii | a-nii | a-rii | *a-ńii |
| die | ii | ii | ii | *ii |
| dig | tʃuʔ | tʃuʔ | tʃoo | *tʃoʔ |
| do/make | ||||
| door | haN-wuiN | ha-wun | tʃuk-wuik | *HOUSE-wun̄ |
| down | buu | buu | buu | *buu |
| dream | baN | baŋ | bak | *baŋ̄ |
| drink | in | in | *in | |
| dry | a-wuɛN | a-wuan | a-wuaik | *awuan̄ |
| ear | a-kuiN | a-kun | a-kuik | *a-kun̄ |
| eat | tʃii | tʃii | tʃii | *tʃii |
| extinguish | biʔ | bik | *bit | |
| existential copula | wɛɛ | |||
| eye | a-kəm | a-kəm | a-kək | *a-kəm̄ |
| fall | ɬuʔ | huʔ | ɬjok-lo | *ɬuk |
| fart | waiʔ | wai | wɛɛ | *waiʔ |
| far | a-tʃoi | a-tʃai | a-tʃjɛɛ | *a-tʃuai |
| fat/grease | a-ʒɔɔ | a-zjaa | a-zua | *azua |
| female/mother | a-mɔɔ | a-mua | a-mua | *a-mua |
| fingernail | gei-sin | geisik | *ge-sin̄ | |
| fire | bɛɛ | bai | bɛɛ | *bai |
| firewood | ʃiN | hɻɨn | hɻeŋ | *sjen |
| fish | ||||
| flow | nyɛ | nuai | ruɛ | *ńuai |
| flower | a-buɛN | hɻɨn-buan | mə-buaik | *buan̄ |
| food | mə-luɛN | mə-luan | mə-luaik | *mə-luan̄ |
| frog | rəʔ | rəʔ | rəə | *rəʔ |
| fruit | ʃiN-wɛɛ | hɻɨn-wai | roŋ-wɛɛ | *wai |
| full | ljɛɛ | jei | ljɛɛ | *ljai |
| full/satiated | mɨŋ | moŋ | moŋ | *moŋ |
| garlic | daN | daŋ | dak | *daŋ̄ |
| ghost | mə-ɬao | mə-hau | mə-ɬaa | *mə-ɬaa |
| give | taN | taŋ | taŋ | *taŋ |
| green | a-rjɛɛ | a-rjei | a-rjɛɛ | *a-rjai |
| guts | a-ɬyi-rin | a-hui-rin | a-ɬue-riŋ | *a-ɬui-rin |
| hair | a-mɨn | a-mən | a-muiŋ | *a-mun |
| hair | kə-zaN | kə-zak | *kə-zaŋ̄ | |
| hand/arm | a-geʔ | a-geiʔ | a-geik | *a-gət |
| head | a-kuN | a-kuŋ-bəə | a-kok-bəə | *akoŋ̄ |
| heart | a-luN-bəə | a-luŋ-bəə | a-lok-bəə | *a-loŋ̄-bəə |
| hold in mouth | mom | ? | mom | *mom |
| husband | a-wui | a-wui | a-wue | *a-wui |
| ill/sick | naN | naŋ | raŋ | *ńaŋ |
| itch | ɔɔ | a-wua | a-wua | *a-wua |
| kill | aiʔ | aik | *at | |
| knife | tʃii | tʃee | tʃee | *tʃee |
| know | dɛN | dan | daik | *dan̄ |
| leaf | a-ləp | a-lək | *ljəp | |
| leech | wɛʔ | waiʔ | ka-waik | *ka-wat |
| left side | pa-fii | pua-fii | pua-fee | *puafee |
| leg | a-lɛɛ | a-lai | a-lɛɛ | *lai |
| lick | ljaʔ | jaa | vjaa | *? |
| light | a-tɔɔ | a-tua | a-tua | *a-tua |
| listen | nɨŋ | nuŋ | roŋ | *ńoŋ |
| liver | a-pjiN | a-pjin | a-pjik | *a-pjin̄ |
| long | a-pjaN | a-pɻaŋ | a-pɻaŋ | *a-pjaŋ |
| louse | *? | |||
| male/father | a-pɔɔ | a-pua | a-pua | *apua |
| man | a-fuu | a-foo | a-fuu | *a-fuu |
| marrow | a-hin | a-ɬiŋ | *a-ɬin | |
| meat | *? | |||
| monkey | ||||
| mortar | sətsəm | tʃuŋtʃəm | tʃjuŋtʃək | *tʃuŋ-tʃəm̄ |
| mouth | a-səm | a-səm | a-sək | *a-səm̄ |
| mushroom | mɨŋ | məŋ | məŋ | *məŋ |
| mute/stupid | bloʔ | bloʔ | blok | *blok |
| name | a-bjɛN | a-bɻɛn | a-bɻɛŋ | *a-bjɛn |
| near | a-nyi | a-nui | a-nui | *a-nui |
| neck | kə-tuN-rin | tuŋ-rin | kə-tuŋ | *kə-tuŋ |
| negation | ba- | ba- | ba- | *ba- |
| new | a-fɛN | a-fan | a-faik | *a-fan̄ |
| night/dark | a-tʃeN | a-tʃen | a-tʃik | *a-tʃen̄ |
| nose | a-puŋ | a-puŋ | a-pok | *a-poŋ̄ |
| old | a-tsɛN | a-tʃjen | a-tʃaik | *a-tʃjan̄ |
| path | lim | lim | lik | *lim̄ |
| penis | a-lɔʔ | a-luaʔ | a-lua | *a-luaʔ |
| person | bii | bii | *bii | |
| pig | *? | |||
| pillow | ka-kəm | koŋ-kəm | ko-kəm | *koŋ̄ -kəm |
| Puroik | purun | puruik | *purun̄ | |
| pull | ryi | rui | rue | *rui |
| quiver | zəp | zəp | zək | *zəp |
| ripe | a-min | a-min | a-miŋ | *a-min |
| rot | ʃam | hɻam | hjap | *sjam̄ |
| run | rin | ren | rik | *rin̄ |
| sago flour | bii | bee-mo | bee | *bee |
| sago club | waN | waŋ | wak | *waŋ̄ |
| sago pick | kjuʔ | kɻuʔ | kɻok | *kjok |
| scratch | bjuʔ | bɻuʔ | bɻoo | *bjoʔ |
| sew | pin | pin | piŋ | *pin |
| shade | a-ɬim | a-him | a-ɬəp | *a-ɬim̄ |
| shelf | rap | rap | rak | *rap |
| shoulder | pa-tɨŋ | pua-tuŋ | pua-tok | *pua-toŋ̄ |
| shy | bii-wɛN | bii-wan | bii-waik | *biiwan̄ |
| sit | ||||
| skin | a-kuʔ | a-kɨʔ | a-kəə | *a-kuʔ |
| sky | ha-mɨŋ | məŋ | kə-məŋ | *ha/kə-məŋ |
| sleep | rəm | rəm | rəm | *rəm |
| sleepy | rəm-bin | rəm-bin | rəm-biŋ | *rəm-bin |
| smell | nam | nam | naŋ | *nam |
| smoke | bɛ-kɨɨ | bai-kəə | bɛɛ-kɨɨ | *baikɨɨ |
| son-in-law | a-bɔʔ | buaʔ | a-bua | *buaʔ |
| stand | tʃin | tʃin | tʃiŋ | *tʃin |
| star | ||||
| stone | ka-lɨŋ | ka-huŋ | *ka-ɬuŋ | |
| sun | hamii | hamii | krii | *PFX-ńii |
| sweet | a-pin | a-pin | a-piŋ | *a-pin |
| swell | pən | pən | pəik | *pən̄ |
| taro | tʃjaʔ | tʃjaʔ | tʃua | *tʃuaʔ |
| tasty/savory | a-rjem | a-rjep | *a-rjem̄ | |
| that | tɛɛ | tai | tɛɛ | *tai |
| thick | a-pən | a-pən | a-pik | *apən̄ |
| thin | a-tsap | a-tʃap | *a-tʃjam̄ | |
| this | hɨŋ | həŋ | həŋ | *həŋ |
| tongue | a-lyi | jui | *a-lui | |
| tooth | kə-tɔN | tuaŋ | kə-tuaŋ | *kə-tuaŋ |
| thorn | mə-zuN | mə-ʒuŋ | kə-zjoŋ | *mə/kə-zoŋ |
| up | kuN | kuŋ | kuŋ | *kuŋ |
| Urtica fibres | ʃaN | hɻaŋ | hɻak | *sjaŋ̄ |
| vomit | muɛʔ | muai | muɛ | *muaiʔ |
| war | mɔʔ | muaʔ | mua | *muaʔ |
| warm | a-ləm | a-ləm | a-ləp | *a-ləm̄ |
| water | kɔɔ | kua | kua | *kua |
| weave | ɛʔ-rɔʔ | ai-ruaʔ | aikrua | *at-ruaʔ |
| wet | a-ʃam | a-hɻam | a-hjap | *a-hjam̄ |
| what | hɛɛ | hai | ||
| white | a-rjuN | a-rjuŋ | a-rjuŋ | *a-rjuŋ |
| wife | a-ʒuu | a-zjoo | a-zou | *a-zjoo |
| wing | a-ʒuiN | a-ʒun | a-juik | *a-jun̄ |
| woman | a-mui | a-mui | *a-mui |