Slavic languages


The Slavic languages, also known as the Slavonic languages, are Indo-European languages spoken primarily by the Slavic peoples or their descendants. They are thought to descend from a proto-language called Proto-Slavic, spoken during the Early Middle Ages, which in turn is thought to have descended from the earlier Proto-Balto-Slavic language, linking the Slavic languages to the Baltic languages in a Balto-Slavic group within the Indo-European family.
The Slavic languages are conventionally divided intro three subgroups: East, West, and South, which together constitute more than 20 languages. Of these, 10 have at least one million speakers and official status as the national languages of the countries in which they are predominantly spoken: Russian, Belarusian and Ukrainian, Polish, Czech and Slovak and Bulgarian and Macedonian, and Serbo-Croatian and Slovene.
The current geographic distribution of natively spoken Slavic languages includes Southern Europe, Central Europe, the Balkans, Eastern Europe, and all of the territory of Russia, which includes northern and north-central Asia. Furthermore, the diasporas of many Slavic peoples have established isolated minorities of speakers of their languages all over the world. The number of speakers of all Slavic languages together was estimated to be 315 million at the turn of the twenty-first century.

Branches

Since the interwar period scholars have conventionally divided Slavic languages, on the basis of geographical and genealogical principle, and with the use of the extralinguistic feature of script, into three main branches, that is, East, West and South..
The most obvious differences between the East, West and South Slavic branches are in the orthography of the standard languages: West Slavic languages are written in the Latin script, and have had more Western European influence due to their proximity and speakers being historically Roman Catholic, whereas the East Slavic and Eastern South Slavic languages are written in Cyrillic and, with Eastern Orthodox or Uniate faith, have had more Greek influence. East Slavic languages such as Russian have, however, during and after Peter the Great's Europeanization campaign, absorbed many words of Latin, French, German, and Italian origin.
The tripartite division of the Slavic languages does not take into account the spoken dialects of each language. Of these, certain so-called transitional dialects and hybrid dialects often bridge the gaps between different languages, showing similarities that do not stand out when comparing Slavic literary languages. For example, Slovak and Ukrainian are bridged by the Rusyn language/dialect of Eastern Slovakia and Western Ukraine. Similarly, the Croatian Kajkavian dialect is more similar to Slovene than to the standard Croatian language.
Although the Slavic languages diverged from a common proto-language later than any other group of the Indo-European language family, enough differences exist between the various Slavic dialects and languages to make communication between speakers of different Slavic languages difficult. Within the individual Slavic languages, dialects may vary to a lesser degree, as those of Russian, or to a much greater degree, as those of Slovene.

History

Common roots and ancestry

Slavic languages descend from Proto-Slavic, their immediate parent language, ultimately deriving from Proto-Indo-European, the ancestor language of all Indo-European languages, via a Proto-Balto-Slavic stage. During the Proto-Balto-Slavic period a number of exclusive isoglosses in phonology, morphology, lexis, and syntax developed, which makes Slavic and Baltic the closest related of all the Indo-European branches. The secession of the Balto-Slavic dialect ancestral to Proto-Slavic is estimated on archaeological and glottochronological criteria to have occurred sometime in the period 1500–1000 BCE.
A minority of Baltists maintain the view that the Slavic group of languages differs so radically from the neighboring Baltic group, that they could not have shared a parent language after the breakup of the Proto-Indo-European continuum about five millennia ago. Substantial advances in Balto-Slavic accentology that occurred in the last three decades, however, make this view very hard to maintain nowadays, especially when one considers that there was most likely no "Proto-Baltic" language and that West Baltic and East Baltic differ from each other as much as each of them does from Proto-Slavic.
, 11th century, Krk, Croatia.

Evolution

The imposition of Old Church Slavonic on Orthodox Slavs was often at the expense of the vernacular. Says WB Lockwood, a prominent Indo-European linguist, "It remained in use to modern times but was more and more influenced by the living, evolving languages, so that one distinguishes Bulgarian, Serbian, and Russian varieties. The use of such media hampered the development of the local languages for literary purposes, and when they do appear the first attempts are usually in an artificially mixed style."
Lockwood also notes that these languages have "enriched" themselves by drawing on Church Slavonic for the vocabulary of abstract concepts. The situation in the Catholic countries, where Latin was more important, was different. The Polish Renaissance poet Jan Kochanowski and the Croatian Baroque writers of the 16th century all wrote in their respective vernaculars.
ian children were literate enough to send each other letters written on birch bark.
Although Church Slavonic hampered vernacular literatures, it fostered Slavonic literary activity and abetted linguistic independence from external influences. Only the Croatian vernacular literary tradition nearly matches Church Slavonic in age. It began with the Vinodol Codex and continued through the Renaissance until the codifications of Croatian in 1830, though much of the literature between 1300 and 1500 was written in much the same mixture of the vernacular and Church Slavonic as prevailed in Russia and elsewhere.
The most important early monument of Croatian literacy is the Baška tablet from the late 11th century. It is a large stone tablet found in the small Church of St. Lucy, Jurandvor on the Croatian island of Krk, containing text written mostly in Čakavian dialect in angular Croatian Glagolitic script. The independence of Dubrovnik facilitated the continuity of the tradition.
'', canonical monument of Old Church Slavonic
More recent foreign influences follow the same general pattern in Slavic languages as elsewhere and are governed by the political relationships of the Slavs. In the 17th century, bourgeois Russian absorbed German words through direct contacts between Russians and communities of German settlers in Russia. In the era of Peter the Great, close contacts with France invited countless loan words and calques from French, many of which not only survived but also replaced older Slavonic loans. In the 19th century, Russian influenced most literary Slavic languages by one means or another.

Differentiation

The Proto-Slavic language existed until around AD 500. By the 7th century, it had broken apart into large dialectal zones.
There are no reliable hypotheses about the nature of the subsequent breakups of West and South Slavic. East Slavic is generally thought to converge to one Old East Slavic language, which existed until at least the 12th century.
Linguistic differentiation was accelerated by the dispersion of the Slavic peoples over a large territory, which in Central Europe exceeded the current extent of Slavic-speaking majorities. Written documents of the 9th, 10th, and 11th centuries already display some local linguistic features. For example, the Freising manuscripts show a language that contains some phonetic and lexical elements peculiar to Slovene dialects. The Freising manuscripts are the first Latin-script continuous text in a Slavic language.
The migration of Slavic speakers into the Balkans in the declining centuries of the Byzantine Empire expanded the area of Slavic speech, but the pre-existing writing survived in this area. The arrival of the Hungarians in Pannonia in the 9th century interposed non-Slavic speakers between South and West Slavs. Frankish conquests completed the geographical separation between these two groups, also severing the connection between Slavs in Moravia and Lower Austria and those in present-day Styria, Carinthia, East Tyrol in Austria, and in the provinces of modern Slovenia, where the ancestors of the Slovenes settled during first colonisation.
In September 2015, Alexei Kassian and Anna Dybo published, as a part of interdisciplinary study of Slavic ethnogenesis, a lexicostatistical classification of Slavic languages. It was built using qualitative 110-word Swadesh lists that were compiled according to the standards of the Global Lexicostatistical Database project and processed using modern phylogenetic algorithms.
The resulting dated tree complies with the traditional expert views on the Slavic group structure. Kassian-Dybo's tree suggests that Proto-Slavic first diverged into three branches: Eastern, Western and Southern. The Proto-Slavic break-up is dated to around 100 A.D., which correlates with the archaeological assessment of Slavic population in the early 1st millennium A.D. being spread on a large territory and already not being monolithic. Then, in the 5th and 6th centuries A.D., these three Slavic branches almost simultaneously divided into sub-branches, which corresponds to the fast spread of the Slavs through Eastern Europe and the Balkans during the second half of the 1st millennium A.D..
The Slovenian language was excluded from the analysis, as both Ljubljana koine and Literary Slovenian show mixed lexical features of Southern and Western Slavic languages, and the quality Swadesh lists were not yet collected for Slovenian dialects. Because of scarcity or unreliability of data, the study also did not cover the so-called Old Novgordian dialect, the Polabian language and some other Slavic lects.
The above Kassian-Dybo's research did not take into account the findings by Russian linguist Andrey Zaliznyak who stated that in the 11th century Novgorod language differed from Kiev language as well as from all other Slavic languages much more than in later centuries, meaning that there was no common Old East Slavic language of Kievan Rus' from which Ukrainian, Russian and Belorusian languages diverged, but that Russian language developed as convergence of Novgorod language and other Russian dialects, whereas Ukrainian and Belorusian were continuation of developement of respective Kiev and Polotsk dialects of Kievan Rus'.
Also Russian linguist Sergey Nikolaev, analysing historical development of Slavic dialects’ accent system, concluded that a number of other tribes in Kievan Rus came from different Slavic branches and spoke distant Slavic dialects.
Zaliznyak and Nikolaev's points mean that there was a convergence stage before the divergence or simultaneously, which was not taken into consideration by Kassian-Dybo's research.
Ukrainian linguists deny the existence of a common Old East Slavic language at any time in the past. According to them, the dialects of East Slavic tribes evolved gradually from the common Proto-Slavic language without any intermediate stages.

Linguistic history

The following is a summary of the main changes from Proto-Indo-European leading up to the Common Slavic period immediately following the Proto-Slavic language.
  1. Satemisation:
  2. *PIE *ḱ, *ǵ, *ǵʰ → *ś, *ź, *źʰ
  3. *PIE *kʷ, *gʷ, *gʷʰ → *k, *g, *gʰ
  4. Ruki rule: Following *r, *u, *k or *i, PIE *s → *š
  5. Loss of voiced aspirates: PIE *bʰ, *dʰ, *gʰ → *b, *d, *g
  6. Merger of *o and *a: PIE *a/*o, *ā/*ō → PS *a, *ā
  7. Law of open syllables: All closed syllables are eventually eliminated, in the following stages:
  8. #Nasalization: With *N indicating either *n or *m not immediately followed by a vowel: PIE *aN, *eN, *iN, *oN, *uN → *ą, *ę, *į, *ǫ, *ų.
  9. #In a cluster of obstruent + another consonant, the obstruent is deleted unless the cluster can occur word-initially.
  10. # Monophthongization of diphthongs.
  11. # Elimination of liquid diphthongs.
  12. First palatalization: *k, *g, *x → CS *č, *ž, *š before a front vocalic sound.
  13. Iotation: Consonants are palatalized by an immediately following *j:
  14. * *sj, *zj → CS *š, *ž
  15. * *nj, *lj, *rj → CS *ň, *ľ, *ř
  16. * *tj, *dj → CS *ť, *ď
  17. * *bj, *pj, *mj, *wj → *bľ, *pľ, *mľ, *wľ
  18. Vowel fronting: After *j or some other palatal sound, back vowels are fronted. This leads to hard/soft alternations in noun and adjective declensions.
  19. Prothesis: Before a word-initial vowel, *j or *w is usually inserted.
  20. Monophthongization: *ai, *au, *ei, *eu, *ū → *ē, *ū, *ī, *jū, *ȳ
  21. Second palatalization: *k, *g, *x → CS *c, *dz, *ś before new *ē. *ś later splits into *š, *s.
  22. Progressive palatalization : *k, *g, *x → CS *c, *dz, *ś after *i, *ī in certain circumstances.
  23. Vowel quality shifts: All pairs of long/short vowels become differentiated as well by vowel quality:
  24. * *a, *ā → CS *o, *a
  25. * *e, *ē → CS *e, *ě
  26. * *i, *u → CS *ь, *ъ
  27. * *ī, *ū, *ȳ → CS *i, *u, *y
  28. Elimination of liquid diphthongs: Liquid diphthongs are changed so that the syllable becomes open:
  29. * *or, *ol, *er, *el → *ro, *lo, *re, *le in West Slavic.
  30. * *or, *ol, *er, *el → *oro, *olo, *ere, *olo in East Slavic.
  31. * *or, *ol, *er, *el → *rā, *lā, *re, *le in South Slavic.
  32. * Possibly, *ur, *ul, *ir, *il → syllabic *r, *l, *ř, *ľ.
  33. Development of phonemic tone and vowel length : Complex developments.

    Features

The Slavic languages are a relatively homogeneous family, compared with other families of Indo-European languages. As late as the 10th century AD, the entire Slavic-speaking area still functioned as a single, dialectally differentiated language, termed Common Slavic. Compared with most other Indo-European languages, the Slavic languages are quite conservative, particularly in terms of morphology. Most Slavic languages have a rich, fusional morphology that conserves much of the inflectional morphology of Proto-Indo-European.

Consonants

The following table shows the inventory of consonants of Late Common Slavic:
1The sound did not occur in West Slavic, where it had developed to.
This inventory of sounds is quite similar to what is found in most modern Slavic languages. The extensive series of palatal consonants, along with the affricates *ts and *dz, developed through a series of palatalizations that happened during the Proto-Slavic period, from earlier sequences either of velar consonants followed by front vowels, or of various consonants followed by *j.
The biggest change in this inventory results from a further general palatalization occurring near the end of the Common Slavic period, where all consonants became palatalized before front vowels. This produced a large number of new palatalized sounds, which formed pairs with the corresponding non-palatalized consonants and absorbed the existing palatalized sounds. These sounds were best preserved in Russian but were lost to varying degrees in other languages. The following table shows the inventory of modern Russian:
This general process of palatalization did not occur in Serbo-Croatian and Slovenian. As a result, the modern consonant inventory of these languages is nearly identical to the Late Common Slavic inventory.
Late Common Slavic tolerated relatively few consonant clusters. However, as a result of the loss of certain formerly present vowels, the modern Slavic languages allow quite complex clusters, as in the Russian word взблеск . Also present in many Slavic languages are clusters rarely found cross-linguistically, as in Russian ртуть or Polish mchu . The word for "mercury" with the initial rt- cluster, for example, is also found in the other East and West Slavic languages, although Slovak retains an epenthetic vowel.

Vowels

A typical vowel inventory is as follows:
FrontCentralBack
Close
Mid
Open

The sound occurs only in some languages, and even in these languages, it is unclear whether it is its own phoneme or an allophone of /i/. Nonetheless, it is a quite prominent and noticeable characteristic of the languages in which it is present.
Common Slavic also had two nasal vowels: *ę and *ǫ. However, these are preserved only in modern Polish.
Other phonemic vowels are found in certain languages.

Length, accent, and tone

An area of great difference among Slavic languages is that of prosody. Common Slavic had a complex system of prosody, inherited with little change from Proto-Indo-European. This consisted of phonemic vowel length and a free, mobile pitch accent:
The modern languages vary greatly in the extent to which they preserve this system. On one extreme, Serbo-Croatian preserves the system nearly unchanged ; on the other, Macedonian has basically lost the system in its entirety. Between them are found numerous variations:
Similarly, Slavic languages have extensive morphophonemic alternations in their derivational and inflectional morphology, including between velar and postalveolar consonants, front and back vowels, and a vowel and no vowel.

Selected cognates

The following is a very brief selection of cognates in basic vocabulary across the Slavic language family, which may serve to give an idea of the sound changes involved. This is not a list of translations: cognates have a common origin, but their meaning may be shifted and loanwords may have replaced them.
Proto-SlavicRussianUkrainianBelarusianPolishCzechSlovakSloveneSerbo-CroatianBulgarianMacedonian
*uxo ухо вухо вуха uchouchouchouhoуво / uvo; uhoухо уво
*ognь огонь вогонь агонь ogieńoheňoheňogenjогањ / oganjогън оган/огин
*ryba рыба риба рыба rybarybarybaribaриба / ribaриба риба
*gnězdo гнездо гнiздо гняздо gniazdohnízdohniezdognezdoгнездо / gnezdoгнездо гнездо
*oko око
modern: глаз 		око вока okookookookoоко / okoоко око
*golva голова
глава "chapter or chief, leader, head"		голова галава głowahlavahlavaglavaглава / glavaглава глава
*rǫka рука рука рука rękarukarukarokaрука / rukaръка рака
*noktь ночь ніч ноч nocnocnocnočноћ / noćнощ ноќ

Influence on neighboring languages

Most languages of the former Soviet Union and of some neighbouring countries are significantly influenced by Russian, especially in vocabulary. The Romanian, Albanian, and Hungarian languages show the influence of the neighboring Slavic nations, especially in vocabulary pertaining to urban life, agriculture, and crafts and trade—the major cultural innovations at times of limited long-range cultural contact. In each one of these languages, Slavic lexical borrowings represent at least 15% of the total vocabulary. However, Romanian has much lower influence from Slavic than Albanian or Hungarian. This is potentially because Slavic tribes crossed and partially settled the territories inhabited by ancient Illyrians and Vlachs on their way to the Balkans.
Although also spoken in neighbouring lands, the Germanic languages show less significant Slavic influence, partly because Slavic migrations were mostly headed south rather than west. Slavic tribes did push westwards into Germanic territory, but borrowing for the most part seems to have been from Germanic to Slavic rather than the other way: for instance, the now-extinct Polabian language was heavily influenced by German, far more than any living Slavic language today. The Slavic contributions to Germanic languages remains a moot question, though Max Vasmer, a specialist in Slavic etymology, has claimed that there were no Slavic loans into Proto-Germanic. The only Germanic languages that show significant Slavic influence are Yiddish and the historical colonial dialects of German that were spoken East of the Oder–Neisse line, such as Silesian German and the Eastern varieties of East Low German, with the exception of Low Prussian, which had a strong Baltic substratum. Modern Dutch slang, especially the Amsterdam dialect, borrowed much from Yiddish in turn. However, there are isolated Slavic loans into other Germanic languages. For example, the word for "border" was borrowed from the Common Slavic granica. There are, however, many cities and villages of Slavic origin in Eastern Germany, the largest of which are Berlin, Leipzig and Dresden. English derives quark from the German Quark, which in turn is derived from the Slavic tvarog, which means "curd". Many German surnames, particularly in Eastern Germany and Austria, are Slavic in origin. Swedish also has torg from Old Russian tъrgъ or Polish targ, tolk from Old Slavic tlŭkŭ, and pråm from West Slavonic pramŭ.
The Czech word is now found in most languages worldwide, and the word, probably also from Czech, is found in many European languages, such as Greek .
A well-known Slavic word in almost all European languages is vodka, a borrowing from Russian водка – which itself was borrowed from Polish wódka, from common Slavic voda with the diminutive ending "-ka". Owing to the medieval fur trade with Northern Russia, Pan-European loans from Russian include such familiar words as sable. The English word "vampire" was borrowed from German Vampir, in turn derived from Serbian vampir, continuing Proto-Slavic *ǫpyrь, although Polish scholar K. Stachowski has argued that the origin of the word is early Slavic *vąpěrь, going back to Turkic oobyr. Several European languages, including English, have borrowed the word polje directly from the former Yugoslav languages. During the heyday of the USSR in the 20th century, many more Russian words became known worldwide: da, Soviet, sputnik, perestroika, glasnost, kolkhoz, etc. Also in the English language borrowed from Russian is samovar to refer to the specific Russian tea urn.

Detailed list

The following tree for the Slavic languages derives from the Ethnologue report for Slavic languages. It includes the ISO 639-1 and ISO 639-3 codes where available.
is the language spoken by the majority of the population.
East Slavic languages:
West Slavic languages:
South Slavic languages:
Para- and supranational languages