Spanish orthography

Spanish orthography is the orthography used in the Spanish language. The alphabet uses the Latin script. The spelling is fairly phonemic, especially in comparison to more opaque orthographies like English, having a relatively consistent mapping of graphemes to phonemes; in other words, the pronunciation of a given Spanish-language word can largely be predicted from its spelling and to a slightly lesser extent vice versa. Notable features of Spanish punctuation include the lack of the serial comma and the inverted question and exclamation marks: .
Spanish uses capital letters much less often than English; they are not used on adjectives derived from proper nouns and book titles capitalize only the first word.
Spanish uses only the acute accent, over any vowel:. This accent is used to mark the tonic syllable, though it may also be used occasionally to distinguish homophones such as si and sí. The only other diacritics used are the tilde on the letter, which is considered a separate letter from, and the diaeresis used in the sequences and —as in bilingüe —to indicate that the is pronounced,, rather than having the usual silent role that it plays in unmarked and.
In contrast with English, Spanish has an official body that governs linguistic rules, orthography among them: the Royal Spanish Academy, which makes periodic changes to the orthography. It is the policy of the Royal Spanish Academy that, when quoting older texts, one should update spelling to the current rules, except in discussions of the history of the Spanish language.

Alphabet in Spanish

The Spanish language is written using the Spanish alphabet, which is the Latin script with one additional letter: eñe, for a total of 27 letters. Although the letters and are part of the alphabet, they appear only in loanwords such as ', ', ' and ' and in sensational spellings: okupa, '. Each letter has a single official name according to the Real Academia Española's new 2010 Common Orthography, but in some regions alternative traditional names coexist as explained below. The digraphs "ch" and "ll" were considered letters of the alphabet from 1754 to 2010.
Letter A B C D E F G H I
Name a be ce de e efe ge hache i
Phoneme , , silent

The digraph represents the affricate. The digraph was formerly treated as a single letter, called che.
The phonemes and are not distinguished in most dialects; see seseo.
With the exception of some loanwords: ', ', ', which have.

Letter	J	K	L	M	N	Ñ	O	P	Q
Name	jota	ka	ele	eme	ene	eñe	o	pe	cu
Phoneme					,

The digraph represents the palatal lateral in a few dialects; but in most dialects—because of the historical merger called yeísmo—it, like the letter, represents the phoneme.
The exact realization of nasals in syllable-final position depends on phonetic attributes of following consonants so that can represent a nasal that is labial, palatal, velar ), etc. In rare instances, word-final is used, but there is no actual pronunciation difference.
Used only in the digraph.

Letter	R	S	T	U	V	W	X	Y	Z
Name	erre	ese	te	u	uve, ve, ve corta, ve baja	uve doble, ve doble, doble ve, doble u	equis	ye, i griega	zeta
Phoneme	,					,	,	,

The digraph, which only appears between vowels, represents the trill.
Old orthography with the letter representing has been preserved in some proper names such as México.
For details on Spanish pronunciation, see Spanish phonology and.
When acute accent and diaeresis marks are used on vowels they are considered variants of the plain vowel letters, but is considered a separate letter from. This makes a difference when sorting alphabetically: appears in dictionaries after. For example, in a Spanish dictionary ' comes after '.
There are five digraphs: , , , and . While che and elle were formerly treated each as a single letter, in 1994 the tenth congress of the Association of Spanish Language Academies, by request of UNESCO and other international organizations, agreed to alphabetize and as ordinary sequences of letters.
Thus, for example, in dictionaries, chico is alphabetized after centro and before ciudad, instead of being alphabetized after all words beginning with cu- as was formerly done.
Despite their former status as unitary letters of the alphabet, and have always been treated as sequences with regard to the rules of capitalization. Thus the word ' in a text written in all caps is CHILLÓN, not *ChILlÓN, and if it is the first word of a sentence, it is written Chillón, not *CHillón. Sometimes, one finds lifts with buttons marked ', but this double capitalization has always been incorrect according to RAE rules.
This is the list of letters from most to least frequent in Spanish texts: ; the vowels take around 45% of the text.

Alternative names

;B and V
;R
;W
;I
;Y
;Z

Other characters

Besides the letters, other characters are specially associated with Spanish-language texts:

The currency symbols of Spanish-language countries: , , , ,
, abbreviation of cada una
and are used in abbreviations like 1.º, 1.ª or D.ª ; in ordinal numbers they match the grammatical gender of the noun being modified: masculine and feminine. N.º can be represented as one character.
is the symbol of the arroba, a pre-metric unit of weight.
and are used at the beginning of interrogative and exclamatory sentences, respectively.
Orthography

Spanish orthography is such that the pronunciation of most words is unambiguous given their written form; the main exception is the letter, which usually represents or , but can also represent or, especially in proper nouns from times of Old Spanish, as in Toponymy of Mexico or Pedro Ximénez. These orthographic rules are similar to, but not the same as, those of other Romance languages of the Iberian Peninsula, such as Portuguese, Catalan and Galician.
The converse does not always hold, i.e. for a given pronunciation there may be multiple possible spellings. The main issues are:

the use of both and for ;
the use of both and for before and ;
the silent ;
for the speakers who have merged and, the various use of, or in different words;
the use of, or before a vowel for ;
for speakers not in central and northern Spain, the use of and for ;
the occasional use of accents to distinguish two words that sound the same, such as tú and tu, sí and si, and más and mas.

sound	before	elsewhere
	or	or

	or

Consonants

Letter	Context		Examples	English approximation
b or v	word-initial after a pause, or after or		; ; ;	practically the same as the typical English, except that it is fully voiced; e.g. about
b or v	elsewhere		; ; ; ; ; mi	between baby and bevy
c	before or	or	;	same as the English voiceless ⟨th⟩ in central and northern Spain, or the typical English in all other regions
c	elsewhere		; ; vaca;	same as certain instances of English or ; e.g. skull, scan, or picking
c	before voiced consonants			a sound between a light English and the typical English
ch	everywhere	or	;	same as the typical English ; church
d	word-initial after a pause, or after or		; ;	practically the same as the typical English, except that it is fully voiced and the tip of the tongue touches the upper teeth; e.g. adore
d	elsewhere		; ; ; mi ;	same as the typical English voiced ⟨th⟩; e.g. this
f	everywhere		;	same as the typical English ; e.g. face
g	before or	or		similar to a "strong" English -sound or aspirated
g	not before or, and either word-initial after a pause, or after		; ;	practically the same as the typical English sound, except that it is fully voiced; e.g. ago
g	not before or, and not in the above contexts		; ; ; mi gato	a sound between a light English and the typical English
gu	before or, and either word-initial after a pause, or after		;	a sound like the in English penguin
gu	before or, and not in the above contexts		;	similar to the typical English, but preceded by a soft guttural sound
gu	before or, and either word-initial after a pause, or after			practically the same as the typical English sound, except that it is fully voiced; e.g. ago
gu	before or, and not in the above contexts			a sound between a light English and the typical English
gü	before or, and either word-initial after a pause, or after		,	a sound like the in English penguin
gü	before or, and not in the above contexts			similar to the typical English, but preceded by a soft guttural sound
h	everywhere		; ; ; ;	silent
h	everywhere; occurs in loanwords and foreign proper names	or	hámster, hawaiano, hachís,,, Yokohama	similar to a "strong" English -sound or aspirated
hi	before a vowel	or	; hielo	similar to or the same as the typical English ; e.g. you
hu	before a vowel		; huevo	same as the typical English ; we
j	everywhere	or	; ; ;	similar to a "strong" English -sound or aspirated
k	rare; only occurs in a few loanwords and sensational spellings		,,	same as certain instances of English or ; e.g. skull, scan, or picking
l	everywhere		; ;	same as the typical English ;e.g. lull
ll	everywhere	, or	;	similar to the in English million
m	everywhere except word-finally		; ;	same as the typical English ; madam
m	word-final	or		varying between the typical English and, e.g. the in English sing
n	word-final	or		varying between the typical English and, e.g. the in English sing
n	everywhere but before other consonants		; ;	same as the typical English ; e.g. nun
n	before other consonants			same as the typical English ; madam same as the English in symphony same as the typical English same as the English in canyon same as the typical English
ñ	everywhere		;	roughly like canyon
p	everywhere		; ;	same as certain instances of English ; e.g. span or typing
p	in the consonant cluster			between baby and bevy
qu	only occurs before or			same as certain instances of English or ; e.g. skull, scan, or picking
r	word-initial, morpheme-initial, or after,, or, or syllable-final and word-final positions		; ; ; ; invierno; persona; verde; ; amor puro	trilled or rolled
r	elsewhere, morpheme-initial		; ; ; ; ; ; ; invierno; persona; verde; ; amor puro; amor eterno	flapped ; e.g. the same sound as the of ladder or of latter in American English
rr	only occurs between vowels			trilled or rolled
s	before a voiced consonant		; ; ;	same as the typical English ; e.g. the in is or busy; in central and northern Spain, Paisa region of Colombia, and Andes, this sound is made with the tip of the tongue rather than the blade, with a sound quality intermediate between the alveolar of English busy and the palato-alveolar of pleasure
s	everywhere else		; ; ;	same as the typical English ; sass; in central and northern Spain, Paisa region of Colombia, and Andes, this sound is made with the tip of the tongue rather than the blade, with a sound quality intermediate between the alveolar of English sea and the palato-alveolar of she
sh	Not considered to be a Spanish digraph, but used in proper names from other languages, some of them being accentuated in the Spanish manner	or	Áncash; Shanghái; shiitake,, Washington	same as the typical English ;e.g. sheesh; when this digraph is equated with the phoneme , the sound is made with the tip of the tongue rather than the blade, with a sound quality intermediate between the alveolar of English sea and the palato-alveolar of she
t	everywhere		;	same as certain instances of English ; e.g. stand. Also, the tip of the tongue touches the upper teeth, rather than the alveolar ridge
t	before voiced consonants			same as the typical English voiced ⟨th⟩; e.g. this
tl	rare; mostly in loanwords from Nahuatl	or	; ;	similar to the combined sound in English cat-like
tx	rare; from loanwords			same as "ch".
tz	rare; from loanwords		;	same as the "ts" in English cats
w	rare; in loanwords from English			when
w	rare; in loanwords from German and in Visigothic names		;	same as the typical English ; e.g. bib
x	between vowels and word-finally		; ;,	same as the typical English ; e.g. taxi or Exactly
x	word-initially			same as the typical English ; sass; in central and northern Spain, Paisa region of Colombia, and Andes, this sound is made with the tip of the tongue rather than the blade, with a sound quality intermediate between the alveolar of English sea and the palato-alveolar of she
x	before a consonant	or		same as the typical English or ; e.g. max or mass
x	in some words borrowed from Nahuatl, mostly place names, and in some Spanish proper names conserving archaic spelling	or	; ; xiote; Texas; La Axarquía; Ximena; Ximénez; Mexía	similar to a "strong" English -sound or aspirated
x	in some words from indigenous American languages, mostly place names	or	Xela; xocoyote	same as the typical English ; e.g. sheesh; when this is equated with the phoneme , the sound is made with the tip of the tongue rather than the blade, with a sound quality intermediate between the alveolar of English sea and the palato-alveolar of she
y	as a semivowel	or	,	same as the typical English ; aye, boy
y	as a consonant	, , or	; ;	similar to the typical English, or but softer; e.g. similar to yes or Jess
z	usually does not occur before or	or	; ;	same as the English voiceless ⟨th⟩ in central and northern Spain, or the typical English in all other regions
z	before voiced consonants	or	,, Aznar	same as the typical English voiced ⟨th⟩; e.g. this in central and northern Spain, or the typical English ; e.g. the in is or busy;

Orthographic in names of Visigothic origin is thought to have represented in Old Spanish, in which and were separate phonemes); this phoneme was also spelled in Old Spanish. See History of Spanish#Merger of /b/ and /v/.

The only consonant letters that can be doubled in the Spanish orthography are, , , , and . Exceptions to this limitation are gamma, digamma, kappa, atto-'', as well as unadapted foreign words and their derivations.

Vowels

Letter	Examples	English approximation
a		spa
e		bet
i	;	see
y		see
o		between coat and caught
u	;	food

Spelling	Examples	English approximation
before a vowel	; ; ;	you
before a vowel	; ; ;	wine

The letter Y

The letter is consistently used in the consonantal value. The use of the letter for a vowel or a semivowel is very restricted. The diphthongs are usually written at the end of words, though exceptions may occur in loanwords. The letter is conserved in rarely used encliticized verbal forms like doyte, haylas. The letter is used for the vowel in the conjunction y and in some acronyms, like pyme. Otherwise, for a vowel or semivowel occurs only in some archaically-spelled proper names and their derivations: Guaymas, guaymeño, and also fraybentino. Derivatives of foreign proper names also conserve : taylorismo, from Taylor.

Special and modified letters

The vowels can be marked with an acute accent——for two purposes: to mark stress if it does not follow the most common pattern, or to differentiate words that are otherwise spelled identically. The accented is found only in some proper names: Aýna, Laýna, Ýñiguez.
A silent is used between and or to indicate a hard pronunciation, so that represents and represents. The letter is used in this context to indicate that the is not silent, e.g. '. The diaeresis may occur also in Spanish poetry, occasionally, over either vowel of a diphthong, to indicate an irregular disyllabic pronunciation required by the meter. This is analogous to the use of in naïve in English.
Also a silent always follows a when followed by or, as in ' and ', but there is no case for the combination, with fulfilling this role. There are no native words in Spanish with the combination nor ; again, is used instead. When they appear, usually from Latin idioms such as ', the is not silent, so is never needed after. Prior to the introduction of the 2010 Common Orthography words such as ', ' or were spelled with ; this is no longer so.

Keyboard requirements

To write Spanish on a typewriter or to set type, the special characters required are,,,,,,,,,, and. The uppercase,,,, and are also prescribed by the RAE, although occasionally dispensed with in practice.
As implemented on the mechanical typewriter, the keyboard contained a single dead key, with the acute accent in the lowercase position, and the diaeresis in the uppercase position. With these, one could write,,,,, and. A separate key provided.. The inverted marks and completed the required minimum. When an additional key was added to electro-mechanical typewriters, this was used for and, though these are not required.
As implemented in the MS-DOS operating system and its successor Microsoft Windows, a / pair—not required in Spanish but needed for Catalan, Portuguese, and French—is typically added, and the use of the acute accent and diaeresis with capital letters is supported. Although not needed for Spanish, another dead key with in lowercase position and in uppercase position was included. Also available is . To make room for these characters not on the standard English keyboard, characters used primarily in programming, science, and mathematics— and,, and, and and —are removed, requiring special keystroke sequences to access.

Stress and accentuation

is marked unequivocally through a series of orthographic rules. The default stress is on the penultimate syllable on words that end in a vowel, or and on the final syllable when the word ends in any consonant other than or. Words that do not follow the default stress have an acute accent over the stressed vowel. The written accent will thus appear only in certain forms of a word and not others, for example andén, plural andenes. In many cases, the accent is essential to understanding what a word means, for example hablo as opposed to habló.
For purposes of counting syllables and assigning stress in Spanish, where an unmarked high vowel is followed by another vowel the sequence is treated as a rising diphthong, counted as a single syllable—unlike Portuguese and Catalan, which tend to treat such a sequence as two syllables. A syllable is of the form XAXX, where X represents a consonant, permissible consonant cluster, or no sound at all, and A represents a vowel, diphthong, or triphthong. A diphthong is any sequence of an unstressed high vowel with another vowel, and a triphthong is any combination of three vowels beginning and ending with unstressed high vowels. Hence Spanish writes ; a word with penultimate stress is called paroxytone ; a word with antepenultimate stress is called proparoxytone. A word with preantepenultimate stress or earlier does not have a common linguistic term in English, but in Spanish receives the name wikt:sobresdrújula#Spanish. All proparoxytones and sobresdrújulas have a written accent mark.
Adjectives spelled with a written accent keep the written accent when they are made into adverbs with the -mente ending, and do not gain any if they do not have one. In the pronunciation of these adverbs—as with all adverbs in wikt:-mente#Spanish—primary stress is on the ending, on the penultimate syllable. The original stress of the adjective—whether marked, as in fácilmente, or not marked, as in libremente—may be manifested as a secondary stress in the adverb.

Accentuation of capital letters

The Real Academia Española indicates that accents are required on capitals.

Differential accents

In eight cases, the written accent is used to distinguish stressed monosyllabic words from clitics:

Clitic

Stressed word

s to distinguish them from relative pronouns :
The use of. Up until 2010, was used when applied to numbers: 7 ó 9, to avoid possible confusion with the digit 0. The tenth congress of the Association of Spanish Language Academies deemed the use of an accent unnecessary, as typewriting eliminates possible confusion due to the different shapes of and .
The differential accent is sometimes used in demonstrative pronouns to distinguish them from demonstrative determiners and in the adverb wikt:sólo#Spanish 'only' to distinguish it from the adjective wikt:solo#Spanish. However, the current position of the RAE is not to use accent in these words regardless of their meaning, except in cases of possible ambiguity.
These diacritics are often called acentos diacríticos or tildes diacríticas in traditional Spanish grammar.

Foreign words

Loanwords in Spanish are usually written according to Spanish spelling conventions : e.g. pádel, fútbol, chófer, máster, cederrón. However, some foreign words are used in Spanish texts in their original forms, not conforming to Spanish orthographic conventions: e.g. ballet, blues, jazz, jeep, lady, pizza, sheriff, software. The RAE prescribes extranjerismos crudos to be written in italics in a text printed in roman type, and vice versa, and in quotation marks in a manuscript text or when italics are not available:
In practice, this RAE prescription is not always followed.
This typographical emphasis is not used for foreign proper names and their derivations; nor is it used for some Spanish derivations of extranjerismos crudos, such as pizzería.

Capitalization

Capitalization in Spanish is sparse compared to English. In general, only personal and place names, some abbreviations ; the first word in the title of a book, movie, song, etc. ; and the first word in a sentence are capitalized, as are names of companies, government bodies, etc. Names of nationalities or languages are not capitalized, nor are days of the week and months of the year.

Older conventions

The Spanish Royal Academy has reformed the orthographic rules of Spanish many times.
In Old Spanish, was used to represent the voiceless palatal sound , while represented the voiced palatal . With the changes of sibilants in the 16th century, the two sounds merged as , and the letter was chosen for the single resulting phoneme in 1815. This results in some words that originally contained now containing, most easily seen in the case of those with English cognates, such as ejercicio, "exercise". When Cervantes wrote Don Quixote he spelled the name in the old way, but modern editions in Spanish spell it with. For the use of in Mexico—and in the name México itself—see below.
The letter —which was first used in Old Spanish—is now obsolete in Spanish, having merged with in a process similar to that of and. Old Spanish ', ', ' became modern ', ', '.
Words formerly spelled with or are now written with and . The sequences and do not occur in modern Spanish except some loanwords: ', ', '; some borrowed words have double spellings: /.
The old spellings with,, and remained in use until the eighteenth century. They were replaced by,, and, respectively in 1726. and continued to be used in some words due to their etymology, but this usage was largely reduced during the 1860—1880s, so these words became ' and '. The letter was replaced by in 1815, although word-final remained until 1832. The combinations and were originally used only in a few etymological cases and also in diminutives ; after the reform of 1815, and were replaced by and in the Ortografía but by and in the Diccionario; since 1832, the spelling was firmly established to be and. Also, unetymological spellings with, were changed to, .
Old Spanish used to distinguish /s/ and /z/ between vowels, and it distinguished them by using for the former and for the latter, e.g. ' and '. In orthography, the distinction was suppressed in 1763.
Words spelled in modern Spanish with, were written with, up until 1815.
, marked as, "Sanctuary church".
In 1726, most double consonants were simplified —but the of a prefix before the of a root was differentiated to in 1763. And the Graeco-Latin digraphs,, and were reduced to,, and, respectively.
An earlier usage had Y as a word initial I.
It is only maintained in the archaic spelling of proper names like Yglesias or Ybarra.
, showing obsolete usages like "Phelipe", "eſta", "Impreſsór".
In early printing, the long s was a different version of used at the beginning or in the middle of a word.
In Spain, the change to use a round s everywhere as in the current usage was mainly accomplished between the years 1760 and 1766; for example, the multi-volume España Sagrada made the switch with volume 16.
From 1741 to 1815, the circumflex was used over vowels to indicate that preceding and should be pronounced /k/ and /ks/ respectively and not /tʃ/ and /x/, e.g. , .
The use of accent marks in publishing varies with different historical periods, due mainly to reforms promulgated by the Spanish Royal Academy. For example, many of the words that are today standardly written with an accent mark appeared more often without it up until around 1880. These include words with final stress ending in -n ; verbs in the imperfect tense ; the possessives mío and mía; and the word '. Meanwhile, one-letter words other than the conjunction y—namely the preposition a and the conjunctions e, o, and u —are generally written with accent marks from the mid-1700s to 1911. The accent-marked infinitive ' begins to outnumber the unaccented form around 1920. Monosyllabic preterit verb forms such as ' and were usually written with accent marks before the 1950s.
The names of numbers in the upper teens and the twenties were originally written as three words, but nowadays they have come to be spelled predominantly as a single word. For the numbers from 21 to 29, the "fused" forms emerged over the second half of the 19th century. For those from 16 to 19, the one-word forms took the lead in the 1940s. Fusing of number-names above 30 is rare.

Reform proposals

In spite of the relatively regular orthography of Spanish, there have been several initiatives to simplify it further. Andrés Bello succeeded in making his proposal official in several South American countries, but they later returned to the standard set by the Real Academia Española.
Another proposal, Ortografía Fonetika R̃asional Ispanoamerikana, remained a curiosity.
Juan Ramón Jiménez proposed changing and to and, but this is only applied in editions of his works or those of his wife, Zenobia Camprubí.
Gabriel García Márquez raised the issue of reform during a congress at Zacatecas, most notoriously advocating for the suppression of, which is mute in Spanish, but, despite his prestige, no serious changes were adopted.
The Academies, however, from time to time have made minor changes, such as allowing ' instead of ', when there is no possible confusion.
A Mexican Spanish convention is to spell certain indigenous words with rather than the that would be the standard spelling in Spanish. This is generally due to the origin of the word containing the voiceless postalveolar fricative sound or another sibilant that is not used in modern standard Spanish. The most noticeable word with this feature is México. The Real Academia Española recommends this spelling. The American Spanish colloquial term chicano is shortened from mechicano, which uses in place of the of rural Mexican Spanish.

Punctuation

Spanish has the unusual feature of indicating the beginning of an interrogative or exclamatory sentence or phrase with inverted variants of the question mark and exclamation mark, respectively. Most languages that use the Latin alphabet use question and exclamation marks at the end of sentences and clauses. These inverted forms appear additionally at the beginning of these sentences or clauses. For example, the English phrase "How old are you?" has just the final question mark, while the Spanish equivalent, ¿Cuántos años tienes? begins with an inverted question mark.
The inverted question and exclamation marks were gradually adopted following the Real Academia's recommendations in the second edition of the Ortografía de la lengua castellana in 1754.

Arabic alphabet

In the 15th and 16th centuries, dialectal Spanish was sometimes written in the Arabic alphabet by moriscos. This form of writing is called aljamiado.

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