Ashkenazi Hebrew
Ashkenazi Hebrew is the pronunciation system for Biblical and Mishnaic Hebrew favored for liturgical use and study by Ashkenazi Jewish practice. It survives today as a separate religious dialect within some parts of the Haredi community, even alongside Modern Hebrew in Israel, although its use amongst non-Israeli Ashkenazi Jews has greatly diminished.
Features
As it is used parallel with modern Hebrew, its phonological differences are clearly recognized:- ʾālep̄ and ʿáyin are completely silent at all times in most forms of Ashkenazi Hebrew, where they are frequently both pronounced as a glottal stop in modern Hebrew. or Yisruayl vs. Yisra'el A special case is Dutch Hebrew, where ‘ayin is traditionally pronounced as a velar nasal, probably under the influence of the local Spanish and Portuguese Jews.
- ṯāw is pronounced in Ashkenazi Hebrew, unless there is a Dagesh in the, where it would be pronounced. In some respects, this is similar to the Yemenite pronunciation as well as some other Mizrahi Hebrew varieties, except these varieties pronounce ת without dagesh as the non-sibilant fricative as 'th' as in English 'think'. It is always pronounced in modern and Sephardi Hebrew.
- ṣērê is pronounced in Ashkenazi Hebrew, where it would be pronounced in Sephardi Hebrew; modern Hebrew varies between the two pronunciations. or Umayn vs. Amen
- qāmeṣ gāḏôl is pronounced in Ashkenazi Hebrew, as in Yemenite and Tiberian Hebrew, where it is in modern Hebrew. or Duvid
- ḥôlam is, depending on the subdialect, pronounced,,,, or in Ashkenazi Hebrew, as against in Sephardic and modern Hebrew or in Yemenite Hebrew.
- Unstressed qubbuṣ or shuruq occasionally becomes in Ashkenazi Hebrew, when in all other forms they are pronounced In the Hungarian and Oberlander dialects, the pronunciation is invariably.
- There is some confusion between final tzere and hiriq
Variants
- These are most obvious in the treatment of ḥôlam: the German pronunciation is , the Galician/Polish pronunciation is , the Hungarian is , and the Lithuanian pronunciation is . Other variants exist: for example in the United Kingdom, the original tradition was to use the German pronunciation, but over the years the sound of ḥolam has tended to merge with the local pronunciation of long "o" as in "toe", and some communities have abandoned Ashkenazi Hebrew altogether in favour of the Israeli-Sephardi pronunciation.
- Tzere is pronounced in the majority of Ashkenazic traditions. In Polish usage, however, it was not infrequently .
- Another feature that distinguishes the Lithuanian pronunciation, traditionally used in an area encompassing modern day's Baltic States, Belarus and parts of Ukraine and Russia, is its merger of sin and shin, both of which are pronounced as . This is similar to the pronunciation of the Ephraimites recorded in Judges 12, which is the source of the term Shibboleth.
- The pronunciation of resh varies between an alveolar flap or trill and a voiced uvular fricative or trill, depending on variations in the local dialects of German and Yiddish.
- In earlier centuries the stress in Ashkenazi Hebrew usually fell on the penultimate, instead of the last syllable as in most other dialects. In the 17th and 18th centuries there was a campaign by Ashkenazi rabbis such as Jacob Emden and the Vilna Gaon to encourage final stress in accordance with the stress marks printed in the Bible. This was successful as concerned liturgical use such as reading from the Torah. However, the older stress pattern persists in the pronunciation of Hebrew words in Yiddish and in early modern poetry by Hayim Nahman Bialik and Shaul Tchernichovsky.
- The merger of to and to in speech occurred at some point between the 11th century and the 18th century, but many later Ashkenazi authorities advocate using the pharyngeal articulation of and when representing the community in religious service such as prayer and Torah reading though this is seldom observed in practice. Similarly, strict usage requires the articulation of initial as a glottal stop.
- In general use, the mobile sheva is often omitted. However, in liturgical use strict conformity to the grammatical rules is encouraged.
History
The difficulty with the latter grouping of theories is that we do not know for certain what the pronunciations of these countries actually were and how far they differed. Since the expulsion of the Jews from Spain in 1492 the Sephardic pronunciation of the vowels became standard in all these countries, ironing out any differences that previously existed. This makes it harder to adjudicate between the different theories on the relationship between today's pronunciation systems and those of ancient times.
Leopold Zunz believed that the Ashkenazi pronunciation was derived from that of Palestine in Geonic times, while the Sephardi pronunciation was derived from that of Babylonia. This theory was supported by the fact that, in some respects, Ashkenazi Hebrew resembles the western dialect of Syriac while Sephardi Hebrew resembles the eastern, e.g. Eastern Syriac Peshitta as against Western Syriac Peshito. Ashkenazi Hebrew in its written form also resembles Palestinian Hebrew in its tendency to male spellings.
Others, including Abraham Zevi Idelsohn, believed that the distinction is more ancient, and represents the distinction between the Judaean and Galilean dialects of Hebrew in Mishnaic times, with the Sephardi pronunciation being derived from Judaean and the Ashkenazi from Galilean. This theory is supported by the fact that Ashkenazi Hebrew, like Samaritan Hebrew, has lost the distinct sounds of many of the guttural letters, while there are references in the Talmud to this as a feature of Galilean speech. Idelsohn ascribes the Ashkenazi pronunciation of kamatz gadol as to the influence of Phoenician: see Canaanite shift.
In the time of the Masoretes there were three distinct notations for denoting vowels and other details of pronunciation in Biblical and liturgical texts. One was the Babylonian; another was the Palestinian; the third was the Tiberian, which eventually superseded the other two and is still in use today.
In certain respects the Ashkenazi pronunciation provides a better fit to the Tiberian notation than do the other reading traditions: for example, it distinguishes between pataḥ and qamaṣ gadol, and between segol and șere, and does not make the qamaṣ symbol do duty for two different sounds. A distinctive variant of the Tiberian notation was in fact used by Ashkenazim, before being superseded by the standard version. On the other hand, it is unlikely that in the Tiberian system ṣere and ḥolam were diphthongs as they are in Ashkenazi Hebrew: they are more likely to have been closed vowels. For more details of the reconstructed pronunciation underlying the Tiberian notation, see Tiberian vocalization.
The 14th century work, Sefer Asufot is one of the only non-liturgical and non-Biblical medieval Ashkenazi texts to use nekuddot. Owing to its more day to day vocabulary, linguists have been able to conclude that medieval Ashkenazi Hebrew was much akin to its contemporary Sephardic vocalization.
In other respects Ashkenazi Hebrew resembles Yemenite Hebrew, which appears to be related to the Babylonian notation. Shared features include the pronunciation of qamaṣ gadol as and, in the case of Lithuanian Jews and some but not all Yemenites, of ḥolam as. These features are not found in the Hebrew pronunciation of today's Iraqi Jews, which as explained has been overlaid by Sephardi Hebrew, but are found in some of the Judeo-Aramaic languages of northern Iraq and in some dialects of Syriac.
Another possibility is that these features were found within an isogloss that included Syria, northern Palestine and northern Mesopotamia but not Judaea or Babylonia proper, and did not coincide exactly with the use of any one notation. The Yemenite pronunciation would, on this hypothesis, be derived from that of northern Mesopotamia and the Ashkenazi pronunciation from that of northern Palestine. The Sephardic pronunciation appears to be derived from that of Judaea, as evidenced by its fit to the Palestinian notation.
According to the Maharal of Prague and many other scholars, including Rabbi Yaakov Emden, one of the leading Hebrew grammarians of all time, Ashkenazi Hebrew is the most accurate pronunciation of Hebrew preserved. The reason given is that it preserves distinctions, such as between pataḥ and qamaṣ, which are not reflected in the Sephardic and other dialects. Only in the Ashkenazi pronunciation are all seven "nequdot" distinguished: Yemenite, which comes close, does not distinguish pataḥ from segol.
On the other hand, this view does not appear to be supported by any non-Ashkenazi scholars. Some scholars argue in favour of the greater authenticity of the Yemenite pronunciation on the ground that it is the only Hebrew pronunciation to distinguish all the consonants.
Influence on Modern Hebrew
Although modern Hebrew was intended to be based on Mishnaic spelling and Sephardi Hebrew pronunciation, the language as spoken in Israel has adapted to the popular Ashkenazi Hebrew phonology in the following respects:- the elimination of pharyngeal articulation in the letters Ḥeth and ʿAyin
- the conversion of resh from an alveolar flap to a voiced uvular fricative or trill
- the pronunciation of tzere as in some contexts, for some speakers.
- the elimination of vocal sheva
- some of the letter names
- in popular speech, penultimate stress in some proper names for some speakers.
- similarly, penultimate stress in nouns or verbs with a second- or third-person plural suffix.
Endnotes
Literature
- Ilan Eldar, Masoret ha-qeri'ah ha-kedem-Ashkenazit, Edah ve-Lashon series vols. 4 and 5, Jerusalem
- A. Z. Idelsohn, Die gegenwärtige Aussprache des Hebräischen bei Juden und Samaritanern, in: Monatsschrift für Geschichte und Wissenschaft des Judentums 57, 1913, p. 527–645 and 698–721.
- Dovid Katz, The Phonology of Ashkenazic, in: Lewis Glinert, Hebrew in Ashkenaz. A Language in Exile, Oxford-New York 1993, p. 46–87..
- S. Morag, Pronunciations of Hebrew, Encyclopaedia Judaica XIII, p. 1120–1145.
- Werner Weinberg, Lexikon zum religiösen Wortschatz und Brauchtum der deutschen Juden, ed. by Walter Röll, Stuttgart–Bad Cannstatt 1994..
- Zimmels, Ashkenazim and Sephardim: their Relations, Differences, and Problems As Reflected in the Rabbinical Responsa : London 1958..