Standard Average European
Standard Average European is a concept introduced in 1939 by Benjamin Whorf to group the modern Indo-European languages of Europe with shared common features. Whorf argued that these languages were characterized by a number of similarities including syntax and grammar, vocabulary and its use as well as the relationship between contrasting words and their origins, idioms and word order which all made them stand out from many other language groups around the world which do not share these similarities; in essence creating a continental sprachbund. His point was to argue that the disproportionate degree of knowledge of SAE languages biased linguists towards considering grammatical forms to be highly natural or even universal, when in fact they were only peculiar to the SAE language group.
Whorf contrasted what he called the SAE tense system which contrasts past, present and future tenses with that of the Hopi language, which Whorf analyzed as being based on a distinction not of tense, but on distinguishing things that have in fact occurred as opposed to things that have as yet not occurred, but which may or may not occur in the future. The accuracy of Whorf's analysis of Hopi tense has later been a point of controversy in linguistics.
Whorf likely considered Romance and West Germanic to form the core of the SAE, i.e. the literary languages of Europe which have seen substantial cultural influence from Latin during the medieval period. The North Germanic and Balto-Slavic languages tend to be more peripheral members.
Alexander Gode, who was instrumental in the development of Interlingua, characterized it as "Standard Average European". The Romance, Germanic, and Slavic control languages of Interlingua are reflective of the language groups most often included in the SAE Sprachbund.
Of all European languages only French and German show all the criteria that constitute Standard Average European, i.e. these two are the "most European" languages.
As a ''Sprachbund''
According to Martin Haspelmath, the SAE languages form a Sprachbund characterized by the following features, sometimes called "euroversals" by analogy with linguistic universals:- definite and indefinite articles ;
- postnominal relative clauses with inflected relative pronouns that signal the role of the head in the clause ;
- a periphrastic perfect formed with 'have' plus a passive participle ;
- a preponderance of generalizing to encode experiencers, i.e. experiencers appear as surface subjects in nominative case ;
- a passive construction formed with a passive participle plus an intransitive copula-like verb ;
- a prominence of anticausative verbs in inchoative-causative pairs ;
- dative external possessors ;
- negative indefinite pronouns without verbal negation ;
- particle comparatives in comparisons of inequality ;
- equative constructions based on adverbial relative-clause structures, e.g. Occitan tan grand coma un elefant, Russian tak že X kak Y, where coma/kak are "adverbial relative pronouns" according to Haspelmath;
- subject person affixes as strict agreement markers, i.e. the verb is inflected for person and number of the subject, but subject pronouns may not be dropped even when this would be unambiguous ;
- differentiation between intensifiers and reflexive pronouns.
- verb-initial order in yes/no questions;
- comparative inflection of adjectives ;
- conjunction "A and-B" instead of "A-and B", "A-and B-and", "A B-and", or "with";
- syncretism of instrumental and comitative cases ;
- suppletivism in second vs. two;
- lack of distinction between alienable and inalienable possession;
- lack of distinction between inclusive and exclusive first-person plural pronouns ;
- lack of productive usage of reduplication;
- topic and focus expressed by intonation and word order;
- word order subject–verb–object;
- only one converb, preference for finite rather than non-finite subordinate clauses;
- specific construction for negative coordination ;
- phrasal adverbs ;
- tendency towards replacement of past tense by the perfect.
- absence of phonemic opposition velar/uvular;
- phonemic voicing oppositions ;
- initial consonant clusters of the type "stop+sonorant" allowed;
- only pulmonic consonants;
- at least three degrees of vowel height ;
- lack of lateral fricatives and affricates;
- predominantly suffixing morphology;
- moderately synthetic fusional morphological typology;
- nominative–accusative morphosyntactic alignment.
- Germanic languages;
- Romance languages;
- Baltic languages;
- Slavic languages;
- Albanian;
- Greek;
- Hungarian.
Not all the languages listed above show all the listed features, so membership in SAE can be described as gradient. Based on nine of the above-mentioned common features, Haspelmath regards French and German as forming the nucleus of the Sprachbund, surrounded by a core formed by English, the other Romance languages, the Nordic languages, and the Western and Southern Slavic languages. Hungarian, the Baltic languages, the Eastern Slavic languages, and the Finnic languages form more peripheral groups. All languages identified by Haspelmath as core SAE are Indo-European languages, except Hungarian and the Finnic languages. However, not all Indo-European languages are SAE languages: the Celtic, Armenian, and Indo-Iranian languages remain outside the SAE Sprachbund.
The Standard Average European Sprachbund is most likely the result of ongoing language contact in the time of the Migration Period and later, continuing during the Middle Ages and the Renaissance. Inheritance of the SAE features from Proto-Indo-European can be ruled out because Proto-Indo-European, as currently reconstructed, lacked most of the SAE features.